EXPERIENCE WITH THE 303-208-201 STUDY RELATIONSHIPS1

ABSTRACT: The current 201 study by the Bergen County Sewer Authority illustrates possibilities for improving the currently defined relationships between 201, 208 and 303 studies. The Bergen County Sewer Authority serves 115 square miles in northeast New Jersey, providing sewerage service to 507,000 people in 43 municipalities. Its STP discharges to the Hackensack River, a tidal estuary recently classified as Water Quality Limited, and which receives significant non-plant loading. The subject 201 study is concurrent with 208 and 303 planning by NJDEP. Preliminary evaluations show that detailed 201 work can affect the conclusions of 303 and 208 studies, and that a wider (environmental - social as well as economic) interpretation of cost-effectiveness can demand re-examination of prior assumptions and decisions, a task not typically part of 208–303 work. Increased flexibility is needed in applying 303 and 208 recommendations to defining 201 studies and NPDES permit criteria, particularly in analysis of water use objectives, water quality parameters and future flows, loadings and facility costs. Further, perception of alternatives can be clarified by broadening analysis of costs and control and plant strategies. Inclusion of 201 planning at all stages of regional planning can synergistically improve the total planning process.     

How multilateral financial institutions promote sustainable water infrastructure planning through economic appraisal: case studies from coastal cities of China

Sustainable urban water infrastructure planning is vital for all cities in developing countries, where rapid urbanization has exacerbated the increasingly burdened environment. Water sustainability is a prerequisite for economic growth, social equity, and living quality in urban areas. This paper documents the current challenges and summarizes the solutions adopted in water infrastructure planning and management. Then, case studies of how multilateral financial institutions have promoted sustainable water infrastructure planning through economic appraisal and the novel approaches adopted for sustainable water infrastructure planning and asset management, are presented for the three cities of Jiaozhou, Cixi, and Fangchenggang. Conclusions are made based on the comparison and analysis of the experiences drawn from the case studies of how economic analysis could help promote sustainable water infrastructure planning and management. It is illustrated that economic analysis that considers ecosystem services supply should be employed more in water infrastructure planning, operation, and management in China.     

WATER USE RELATIONSHIPS AND PROJECTION CORRESPONDING WITH REGIONAL GROWTH,SEATTLE REGION1

ABSTRACT: The paper outlines both the methods used and the results obtained in a study of the demand for municipal and industrial water for the Seattle region. The study was made as part of a regional water management study program, one objective of which is to “… identify, quantify, and set priorities for all current and future water uses …”. A basic concept in the study of municipal and industrial water use is that the demand for water is derived from the demand for output and the direct services that water provides. Principal characteristics of the study are: (1) Water use is studied by type - residential, commercial, industrial and public -with identification of factors affecting each; (2) Water demands are studied by season as well as on an annual basis; (3) Projections of future water use are tied directly to projections of economic change in the service area; and (4) The effects of alternative policies on water use are estimated. Water use levels are projected under alternative regional growth assumptions provided by the Puget Sound Governmental Conference, a regional planning agency. Thus, the water use planning is consistent with other regional planning programs in this respect. The results can be varied according to changes in specific factors affecting water use. The factors considered in the present study include: single-family residential lot size, distribution of population between single- and multi-family units, per capita water use by multi-family unit residents, and industrial and commercial water use per employee. An income elasticity of demand was estimated for single-family residential water use.     

Nonstationary Water Planning: An Overview of Several Promising Planning Methods1

Waage, Marc D. and Laurna Kaatz, 2011. Nonstationary Water Planning: An Overview of Several Promising Planning Methods. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(3):535‐540. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00547.x Abstract: Climate change is challenging the way water utilities plan for the future. Observed warming and climate model projections now call into question the stability of future water quantity and quality. As water utilities cope with preparing for the large range of possible changes in climate and the resulting impacts on their water systems, many are searching for planning techniques to help them consider multiple possible conditions to better prepare for a different, more uncertain, future. Many utilities need these techniques because they cannot afford to delay significant decisions while waiting for scientific improvements to narrow the range of potential climate change impacts. Several promising methods are being tested in water utility planning and presented here for other water utilities to consider. The methods include traditional scenario planning, classic decision making, robust decision making, real options, and portfolio planning. Unfortunately, for utilities vulnerable to climate change impacts, there is no one‐size‐fits‐all planning solution. Every planning process must be tailored to the needs and capabilities of the individual utility.     

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL SEWERAGE SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT: A few years ago, many water quality administrators were convinced that large regional sewerage systems, consisting of one large treatment plant and long trunk sewers extending out to various communities, represented the only efficient and economical means of assuring water quality control. In communities favoring rapid development, the provision of sewer service and encouragement of development of new centers along the trunk sewers offered an additional advantage. More recently quite different points of view are arising in certain areas. In parts of New Jersey strong environmental and community resistance has arisen to proposed central plant-trunk sewer systems. The facilitation of new development along the trunk sewers is viewed as a menace by townships not wanting intensive development of these areas. The diversion of effluent flows to trunk sewers rather than septic tanks would dry up the streams which water quality programs are supposed to protect. Both sides to the controversy have mobilized engineering, environmental, economic, and legal expertise and some critical policy issues have developed. Reconsideration of regional sewerage management and particularly trunk sewer policy is required. The decision as to extent of sewerage service areas involves complex and sensitive planning issues. Because of potential conflicts of interest, such decisions should not be left to staffs of sewerage authorities and their design engineers.     

REGIONAL WATER SUPPLY PLANNING STUDY FOR NORTHEASTERN ILLINOIS1

ABSTRACT: The development of a regional water supply system for the six-county area of Northeastern Illinois is presented in this paper, including: 1) the establishment of regional water supply technical planning policies; 2) the development and utilization of a regional water supply computer model to identify the principal and secondary sources of water supply for each entity in the study area, based on an apparent cost-effective source analysis; and 3) utilization of the study results to develop for the year 2010 a suggested preliminary regional water supply system. Using the findings from task 2 above, a proposed plan for overall Lake Michigan water use through the year 2010 was also developed. The effects of the proposed regional water supply system on future water levels in the deep aquifer were also discussed.     

A WATER RESOURCE PLANNING PROCEDURE FOR RURAL TOWNS1

ABSTRACT: Six new techniques have been developed for lake watershed analysis and water resource management. The techniques are for determining: (1) watershed land use intensity with reference to water quality, (2) lake vulnerability, (3) water quality, (4) watershed carrying capacity, (5) the economic value of the lake, and (6) the potential of undeveloped lake-shore. These analyses are designed for use by rural planning commissions with guidance and assistance from state agencies and the state university. The comprehensive rural watershed land and water use plan developed by this procedure is inexpensive in time and money, understandable by the layman, and scientificially sound. It is based on presently available information. This water resource planning procedure has been demonstrated in several town planning projects. It is suggested that this method, or modification of it, could be adopted in all rural states by action by a few administrators and without any new enabling or appropriations legislation.     

Water Supply Planning Considering Uncertainties in Future Water Demand and Climate: A Case Study in an Illinois Watershed

Ensuring an adequate, reliable, clean, and affordable water supply for citizens and industries requires informed, long-range water supply planning, which is critically important for water security. A balance between water supply and demand must be considered for a long-term plan. However, water demand projections are often highly uncertain. Climate change could impact the hydrologic processes, and consequently, threaten water supply. Thus, understanding the uncertainties in future water demand and climate is critical for developing a sound water supply plan. In Illinois, regional water supply planning attempts to explore the impacts of future water demand and climate on water supply using scenario analyses and hydrologic modeling. This study is aimed at developing a water supply planning framework that considers both future water demand and climate change impacts. This framework is based on the Soil and Water Assessment Tool to simulate the watershed hydrology and conduct scenario analyses that consider the uncertainties in both future water demand and climate as well as their impacts on water supply. The framework was applied to water supply planning efforts in the Kankakee River watershed. The Kankakee River watershed model was calibrated and validated to observed streamflow records at four long-term United States Geological Survey streamflow gages. Because of the many model parameters involved, the calibration process was automated and was followed by a manual refinement, resulting in good model performance. Long-range water demand projections were prepared by the Illinois State Water Survey. Six future water demand scenarios were established based on a suite of assumptions. Climate scenarios were obtained from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Projection Phase 5 datasets. Three representative concentration pathways (RCPs), RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5, are used in the study. The scenario simulation results demonstrated that climate change appears to have a greater impact on water availability in the study area than water demand. The framework developed in this study can also be used to explore the impacts of uncertainties of water demand and climate on water supply and can be extended to other regions and watersheds.     

The pricing of water services in developing countries

This paper focuses on improving efficiency in the water and sewerage sectors through long-run marginal cost pricing, adjusted for financial needs, externalities, second best considerations, lifeline tariffs and cross subsidization within an integrated water resource planning (IWRP) framework. Supply efficiency suggests that for a given price structure, an optimal long-run investment plan and a corresponding level of supply quality should be determined which maximizes net social benefits. Supply efficiency also requires efficient operation of the water system, including optimization of losses.     

COOPERATIVE MODELING: BUILDING BRIDGES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THE PUBLIC1

As freshwater resources become more scarce and water management becomes more contentious, new planning approaches are essential to maintain ecologic, economic, and social stability. One technique involves cooperative modeling in which scientists and stakeholders work together to develop a computer simulation model to assist in planning efforts. In the Middle Rio Grande region of New Mexico, where water management is hotly debated, a stakeholder team used a system dynamics approach to create a computer simulation model to facilitate producing a regional plan. While the model itself continues to be valuable, the process for creating the model was also valuable in helping stakeholders jointly develop understanding of and approaches to addressing complex issues. In this paper, the authors document results from post‐project interviews designed to identify strengths and weaknesses of cooperative modeling; to determine if and how the model facilitated the planning process; and to solicit advice for others considering model aided planning. Modeling team members revealed that cooperative modeling did facilitate water planning. Interviewees suggested that other groups try to reach consensus on a guiding vision or philosophy for their project and recognize that cooperative modeling is time intensive. The authors also note that using cooperative modeling as a tool to build bridges between science and the public requires consistent communication about both the process and the product.     

A Level‐of‐Service Concept for Planning Future Water Supply Projects under Probabilistic Demand and Supply Framework

One of the most challenging tasks of water supply utilities is planning the timing and quantity of new water supply sources as demand for water consumption grows. Many water supply utilities target on meeting 100% of their customers' needs based on scenario‐based deterministic demand projections numbers even though there are uncertainties in both supply and demand values. This may result in under or overly conservative approach in assessing future needs. In this article, a level‐of‐service concept is introduced to capture a utility's willingness to accept a given level of risk, plan for it, and invoke a management strategy during extreme events than build a facility to accommodate those in planning for new water supply sources. Accounting for uncertainties in both supply and demand help quantify reliability by achieving a prescribed level of service. The major benefit of such an approach for planning future water supply is that it allows policy makers to evaluate the use of adaptive water management strategies and develop supply in an incremental fashion as demand warrants it. For example, if a given level of service cannot be reliably met with the existing system at a future time t, an incremental water supply project would come online to bring the required reliability level up but no more.     

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEHRAN REGION IN IRAN1

ABSTRACT: In this paper, a system approach to water resources development in Tehran Metropolitan Area, with its complex system of water supply and demands, is discussed. Water resources in this region include water storage in the Lar, Latyan, and Karaj reservoirs, the Tehran aquifer, as well as water discharge in local rivers and in drainage channels (mainly supplied by urban runoff and wastewater). This study consists of three phases of long‐term water resources planning and management in the Tehran metropolitan area. In each phase, a different level of details among different components of the system is considered. In the first phase, optimal operating policies for Tehran reservoirs and a decision support system are developed. In the second phase, interactions between surface and ground water resources as well as surface runoffs and wastewater disposal in different subareas are investigated. The water table fluctuations as a result of implementing sewerage collection project was also simulated. In the last phase, long‐term scenarios for water resources and agricultural development in the Southern part of Tehran are defined, and the effects of each scenario on the quality and quantity of surface and ground water resources are studied.     

Water supply,waste assimilation,and low-flow issues facing the Southeast Piedmont Interstate-85 urban archipelago

Rapidly growing cities along the Interstate-85 corridor from Atlanta, GA, to Raleigh, NC, rely on small rivers for water supply and waste assimilation. These rivers share commonalities including water supply stress during droughts, seasonally low flows for wastewater dilution, increasing drought and precipitation extremes, downstream eutrophication issues, and high regional aquatic diversity. Further challenges include rapid growth; sprawl that exacerbates water quality and infrastructure issues; water infrastructure that spans numerous counties and municipalities; and large numbers of septic systems. Holistic multi-jurisdiction cooperative water resource planning along with policy and infrastructure modifications is necessary to adapt to population growth and climate. We propose six actions to improve water infrastructure resilience: increase water-use efficiency by municipal, industrial, agricultural, and thermoelectric power sectors; adopt indirect potable reuse or closed loop systems; allow for water sharing during droughts but regulate inter-basin transfers to protect aquatic ecosystems; increase nutrient recovery and reduce discharges of carbon and nutrients in effluents; employ green infrastructure and better stormwater management to reduce nonpoint pollutant loadings and mitigate urban heat island effects; and apply the CRIDA framework to incorporate climate and hydrologic uncertainty into water planning.     

Does More Storage Give California More Water?

Increasing reservoir storage is commonly proposed to mitigate increasing water demand and provide drought reserves, especially in semiarid regions such as California. This paper examines the value of expanding surface reservoir capacity in California using hydroeconomic modeling for historical conditions, a future warm‐dry climate, and California's recently adopted policy to end groundwater overdraft. Results show expanding surface storage capacity rarely provides sizable economic value in most of California. On average, expanding facilities north of California's Delta provides some benefit in 92% of 82 years modeled under historical conditions and in 61% of years modeled in a warm‐dry climate. South of California's Delta, expanding storage capacity provides no benefits in 14% of years modeled under historical conditions and 99% of years modeled with a warm‐dry climate. Results vary across facilities between and within regions. The limited benefit of surface storage capacity expansion to statewide water supply should be considered in planning California's water infrastructure.     

Incorporating Climate Change Into Water Resources Planning in England and Wales1

Arnell, Nigel W., 2011. Incorporating Climate Change Into Water Resources Planning in England and Wales. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 47(3):541‐549. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00548.x Abstract: Public water supplies in England and Wales are provided by around 25 private‐sector companies, regulated by an economic regulator (Ofwat) and environmental regulator (Environment Agency). As part of the regulatory process, companies are required periodically to review their investment needs to maintain safe and secure supplies, and this involves an assessment of the future balance between water supply and demand. The water industry and regulators have developed an agreed set of procedures for this assessment. Climate change has been incorporated into these procedures since the late 1990s, although has been included increasingly seriously over time and it has been an effective legal requirement to consider climate change since the 2003 Water Act. In the most recent assessment in 2009, companies were required explicitly to plan for a defined amount of climate change, taking into account climate change uncertainty. A “medium” climate change scenario was defined, together with “wet” and “dry” extremes, based on scenarios developed from a number of climate models. The water industry and its regulators are now gearing up to exploit the new UKCP09 probabilistic climate change projections – but these pose significant practical and conceptual challenges. This paper outlines how the procedures for incorporating climate change information into water resources planning have evolved, and explores the issues currently facing the industry in adapting to climate change.     

WASTE WATER REUSE IN PHOENIX-HOW VIABLE IS IT?1

ABSTRACT: The Phoenix metropolitan area has a unique combination of circumstances which makes it one of the prime areas in the Nation for waste water reuse. Overriding all of these conditions is the long-term inadequacy of the existing water supplies. The Salt River Valley has a ground water overdraft of about 700,000 acre feet per year. To help alleviate this situation, the Corps of Engineers in conjunction with the MAG 208 is looking at ways to reuse a projected 2020 waste water flow of 340,000 acre feet per year. Reuse options identified include ground water recharge, agricultural irrigation, turf irrigation, recreational lakes, fish and wildlife habitats, and industrial cooling. These look nice on paper but before they can be implemented, some hard questions have to be answered, such as: How acceptable are local treatment plants when 15 years ago there was a major push to eliminate local plants; is the Phoenix area ready for reuse in urban areas; what are people willing to pay for water; who benefits if a city goes to ground water recharge; how much agriculture will be left in the area by 2020? These and other questions must be resolved if reuse is to become a viable option in water resource planning in the Phoenix area. Summary. Large scale reuse of waste water conforms with the national goal of better resource management through recycling. The Phoenix metropolitan area has a unique combination of circumstances which makes it one of the prime areas in the nation for waste water reuse. Some of the most notable conditions are: the existence of a large and rapidly growing urban area which is in the process of planning for future waste water management systems; the existence of agricultural areas which are projected to be farmed well into the future, and the existence of constructed and planned major recreational systems such as Indian Bend Wash which can use recycled waste water; the existence of extensive depleted ground water aquifers; the need for a dependable source for the cooling of the Palo Verde Nuclear reactors; and finally, overriding all of this, the long-term inadequacy of the existing water supplies. Given this, one would expect to find total reuse within the Phoenix metropolitan area. Reuse is taking place with irrigation and nuclear power cooling to the west but there is no long term plan which looks at the Valley as a whole and considers waste water as part of the Valley's water resources. The Corps 208 plan is looking at waste water in this manner but initial analysis shows that although reuse is technically feasible there are many financial, social, institutional, and political questions still to be answered. These include: determining the value of existing diminishing water sources and what people are willing to pay for the next source of water; are people willing to identify priority uses of water for the area so that water of varying quality is put to its highest and best use; will the present institutional boundaries remain to create water-rich and water-poor areas; and will legislation be forthcoming to simplify the complex surface and ground water laws that presently exist? The Corps 208 study will not be able to answer these questions, but the goal at the moment is to identify feasible reuse systems along with decisions the public, owners, agencies, and politicians must make to select and implement them. If some sort of logical process is not developed and public awareness not increased, the chance for a long-term plan to utilize waste water as a major element in the Phoenix area water resource picture, may be missed.     

CAPACITY EXPANSION PLANNING MODEL FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT AND I/I CONTROL1

ABSTRACT: A dynamic programming model is presented for planning the optimal capacity expansion sequence of waste water treatment plants servicing sewerage systems with infiltration/inflow. The model employs a nonlinear deterministic demand function for waste water treatment plant capacity. Model output provides the optimal timing, size, and sequence for treatment plant capacity expansion projects and infiltration/inflow removal projects. An example problem is presented and solved.     

Water management in the world of globalization

Water management is changing its paradigm. The millennia of economic indoctrination are to be replaced by the logic of ecology. The economic sector satisfying the demands for water and water‐related services guided until now by its own ideology and institutions, is gradually becoming an integral part of environmental protection and eco‐economy. Within the great diversity of national water policies, efforts towards sustainability are a dominant common objective. Discussions of the World Water Fora and other initiatives indicate that ecologically oriented water management is the emerging new challenge for achieving this objective. Ecological orientation emphasizes the unified system of the world water balance processes as transmitters of various human impacts leading to economic externalities. Water management is becoming a component of the processes of globalization primarily through its externalities requiring a comprehensive informational infrastructure as well as adequate institutional competence for their management. The paper analyzes fundamental features of the conceptual models incorporating such informational and institutional arrangements. The outlook of water is inseparably tied to the world order of the future, and water management in the world of globalization can either promote a genuine worldwide collaboration or can become a source of dangerous international tensions and conflicts.     

AN APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL PROGRAMMING TO WATER RESOURCES PLANNING: AN ECONOMIC VIEW1

ABSTRACT: Individuals involved in state water resource planning generally have avoided any development of a comprehensive public water planning investment model that would set the stage for quantitative recommendations of a “what ought to be” tone for future water strategies. Three New Hampshire towns were selected to illustrate the usefulness of a mixed integer multiperiod programming model that utilizes hydrologic and economic data for identifying the discounted least cost of water supply, distribution, and scheduling. Comparisons are made regarding the feasibility of a regional water system approach versus independent “town by town” water supplies that presently prevail. To analyze the sensitivity of optimal water planning solutions to projected water demands, variations in these demands are made.     

WEATHER AND CLIMATE EXTREMES,CLIMATE CHANGE,AND PLANNING: Views of Community Water System Managers in Pennsylvania's Susquehanna River Basin1

ABSTRACT: This research examines the sensitivity and vulnerability of community water systems (CWSs) to weather and climate in the Pennsylvania portion of the Susquehanna River Basin. Three key findings emerge from a survey of 506 CWS managers. First, CWSs are sensitive to extreme weather and climate, but that sensitivity is determined more by type of system than system size. CWSs that rely partly or wholly on surface water face more disruptions than do groundwater systems. Larger systems have more problems with flooding, and size is not a significant determinant of outages from storms or disruptions from droughts. Second, CWS managers are unsure about global warming. Few managers dismiss global warming; most think global warming could be a problem but are unwilling to consider it in their planning activities until greater scientific certainty exists. Third, the nature of the CWS, its sensitivity to weather and climate, and projected risks from weather and climate are insignificant determinants of how managers plan. Experienced, full-time managers are more likely to consider future weather and climate scenarios in their planning, while inexperienced and part-time managers are less likely to do so. Implications of these findings include support for efforts to move away from surface water, for clear communication of climate change information, and for the hiring and retention of full-time professional CWS managers.