Impact of water control projects on fisheries resources in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a very flat delta built up by the Ganges—Brahmaputra—Meghna/Barak river systems. Because of its geographical location, floods cause huge destruction of lives and properties almost every year. Water control programs have been undertaken to enhance development through mitigating the threat of disasters. This structural approach to flood hazard has severely affected floodplain fisheries that supply the major share of protein to rural Bangladesh, as exemplified by the Chandpur Irrigation Project. Although the regulated environment of the Chandpur project has become favorable for closed-water cultured fish farming, the natural open-water fishery loss has been substantial. Results from research show that fish yields were better under preproject conditions. Under project conditions per capita fish consumption has dropped significantly, and the price of fish has risen beyond the means of the poor people, so that fish protein in the diet of poor people is gradually declining. Bangladesh is planning to expand water control facilities to the remaining flood-prone areas in the next 15–20 years. This will cause further loss of floodplain fisheries. If prices for closed-water fish remain beyond the buying power of the poor, alternative sources of cheap protein will be required.     

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGNS FOR STREAMBANK PROTECTION PROJECTS1

ABSTRACT: Streambank protection projects are intended to prevent streambank erosion, thereby preventing streambank failure and maintaining a desirable channel alignment. Streambank erosion is a natural process of unaltered, dynamic river systems, and protection projects seek to impose stability on this natural system. The environmental impacts of such projects are primarily changes to terrestrial and aquatic habitats and to aesthetics. Adverse environmental impacts have been minimized and enhancement of existing habitat and aesthetics have been achieved through the development of new, innovative designs or modifications to existing designs and through use of construction and maintenance practices that promote habitat and aesthetics. Designs based on channel flow characteristics, e.g., revetments using a variety of structural materials, can result in preservation of wildlife habitat by reducing the use of structural protection by matching the erosion potential of flow at the bank with the protection capability of the materials used. Designs based on streambed stabilization prevent bank failure caused by bank undermining, result in preservation or establishment of streamside vegetation, and enhance aesthetics. Protection schemes that manage and preserve floodplains, berms, and riparian areas preserve the natural condition of the floodplain area. Designs based on deflection of erosive flows, e.g., dikes, minimize disturbance to the bank vegetation and create low-velocity aquatic habitats. Use of vegetation for bank protection is most effective when used in combination with structural components. Construction and maintenance practices can be scheduled and modified to minimize impacts to floodplain areas and to enhance wildlife habitat while preserving the integrity of the protection structure.     

Fishing Effort and Catch Composition of Urban Market and Rural Villages in Brazilian Amazon

The management of small-scale freshwater fisheries in Amazon has been based usually on surveys of urban markets, while fisheries of rural villages have gone unnoticed. We compared the fishing characteristics (catch, effort and selectivity) between an urban market and five small villages in the Lower Tocantins River (Brazilian Amazon), downstream from a large reservoir. We recorded 86 and 601 fish landings in the urban market and villages, respectively, using the same methodology. The urban fishers showed higher catch per unit of effort, higher amount of ice (related to a higher fishing effort, as ice is used to store fish catches) and larger crew size per fishing trip, but village fishers had a higher estimated annual fish production. Conversely, urban and village fishers used similar fishing gear (gillnets) and the main fish species caught were the same. However, village fishers showed more diverse strategies regarding gear, habitats and fish caught. Therefore, although it underestimated the total amount of fish caught in the Lower Tocantins River region, the data from the urban market could be a reliable indicator of main fish species exploited and fishing gear used by village fishers. Monitoring and management should consider the differences and similarities between urban and rural fisheries, in Amazon and in other tropical regions.     

Lessons from Integrating Fishers of Arapaima in Small-Scale Fisheries Management at the Mamirauá Reserve,Amazon

Fishers and small-scale fisheries worldwide have been marginalized historically. Now it is clear that integrating fishers in management processes is key to resource conservation, but it is less clear how to do it. Here, based on a literature review and new information, we present and analyze a case in which the participation of fishers in the management process was crucial in recovering an overexploited small-scale fishery for the pirarucu (Arapaima spp.) in the Amazon Basin, Brazil. In 8 years of experimental management, from 1999 to 2006, the population of pirarucu increased 9-fold (from about 2200 to 20,650 individuals), harvest quotas increased 10-fold (from 120 to 1249 individuals), and fishers’ participation in the management process increased and they benefited from increased monetary returns. Additionally, the number of communities conducting the management scheme increased from 4 in 1999 to 108 in 2006, following the demands of fishers and regional government agencies. Based on our analysis, we suggest that the participation of fishers in the management of other small-scale fisheries in the world can be improved by focusing on (1) applying the knowledge and skills of fishers in resource monitoring and management, (2) bridging knowledge systems among all involved stakeholders, (3) collaborating with fishers that are interested in, and capable of conducting, resource conservation schemes, and (4) conducting management under conditions of uncertainty.     

Mekong River Fish Conservation Zones in Southern Laos: Assessing Effectiveness Using Local Ecological Knowledge

Small-scale fisheries are important in Laos, where rural people heavily depend upon Mekong River and tributary fish stocks for their livelihoods. Increasing pressures from human exploitation and habitat disturbance, however, have raised serious concerns about the potential depletion of various species. This has led to the establishment of large numbers of Fish Conservation Zones (FCZs) or “no-take” fish sanctuaries in southern Laos based on a “community-based fisheries co-management” framework. This study uses the local ecological knowledge (LEK) of fishers to assess the effectiveness of village-managed FCZs in enhancing fish stocks in the mainstream Mekong River in Khong District, Champasak Province. Focus group interviews about species that are believed to have benefited from different FCZs are compared with parameters such as FCZ area, age, depth, localized gradient, water velocity, and the presence of wetland forests nearby. The results suggest that no one aspect is likely to account for variations in fish stocks; rather, it is the interaction between numerous factors that has the largest impact. Secondly, the results indicate that microhabitat diversity and protection are critical for maintaining and enhancing Mekong fisheries. Deep-water pools are particularly important as dry season refuges for many fish species, and FCZ depth may be the single most important environmental factor affecting the success of FCZs in the Mekong River. FCZs have the most potential to benefit relatively sedentary species, but may also benefit highly migratory species, given the right conditions. This study shows that integrated approaches to stock assessment that employ LEK and scientific fisheries management have considerable potential for improving Mekong capture-fisheries management.     

A Review of Habitat Connectivity Research for Pacific Salmon in Marine,Estuary, and Freshwater Environments

Long‐term conservation planning for diadromous fishes would benefit from a better understanding of both the role of connectivity among environments and habitat variability in the expression of life‐history diversity. Most of the scientific knowledge on habitat fragmentation and connectivity has been developed in terrestrial systems in the discipline of landscape ecology. Research on habitat connectivity in aquatic systems (e.g., salmonid research that spans the spectrum of habitats from freshwater to the sea) is uncommon and largely focused on barriers to fish passage. Here, we present a review of the literature characterizing current research patterns on habitat connectivity within and among environments for Pacific salmon. We found this topic is still incipient: the literature is dominated by studies of freshwaters, with few articles focusing on habitat needs in estuary and marine systems. Pan‐environment studies are rare, pointing to a gap in our understanding of complex habitat relationships that might be significant in the development of long‐term conservation and restoration plans for Pacific salmon, particularly in light of the potential impact of climate change.     

Lessons from community based management of floodplain fisheries in Bangladesh

Inland (floodplain) fisheries remain the most important contributor to fish production in Bangladesh. They have in the past been administered to generate government revenue without due concern for sustainability or equity. Community Based Fisheries Management (CBFM) is a possible solution and was tested in 19 waterbodies (rivers and beels) during 1996-2000. The outcomes so far are assessed with respect to social, institutional, and physical context, and the interactions that arose in establishing CBFM. The lessons drawn are that: it was essential that communities obtained rights over the fisheries, strong facilitation was necessary, taking up visible resource management actions greatly helped, success was more likely in homogeneous communities, external threats were a strong limiting factor, clear boundaries and small fisheries were not so critical, and new institutions could be built with as much ease (or difficulty) as modifying existing ones. Effective well-defined partnerships of NGOs and government were not easy to establish but were sufficiently beneficial that in several locations new community institutions for fisheries management were established. This is a slow process, the sustainability of local management institutions is not yet established, although they continued during an interim period without funding, further phased support is planned to strengthen these organizations and to generate evidence of impacts and momentum to influence wider fisheries policy in and beyond Bangladesh.     

A multi-criteria assessment of fishing gear impacts in demersal fisheries

Fishing gears have multiple impacts on the marine environment, and policies to reduce these impacts through modifying fishing gears are becoming common place. Different modifications result in different changes in the set of environmental impacts, and imply different sets of costs and benefits for different stakeholder groups. In this study, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is used to quantify the relative importance of the environmental impacts of fishing to different stakeholder groups. Forty eight individuals representing six different stakeholder groups (ecologists, biologists, economists, gear technologists, fishers and fisheries managers) were surveyed. As expected, fishers and gear technologists placed substantially greater importance on reducing discarding of commercial fish species than on habitat damage. Priorities of other stakeholder groups varied, but all placed greater priority on habitats than the commercial sector. The results suggest that management aimed at reducing environmental impacts of fishing broader than just discarding is appropriate, but such moves are likely to be opposed by the fishing industry. The derived weights also have a direct application to fisheries management, as they allow otherwise non-commensurate impacts to be aggregated into an overall impact to compare environmental benefits from alternative modifications of fishing gear.     

TIMBER MANAGEMENT INFLUENCES ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH1

ABSTRACT: Recent watershed research indicates that many timber management practices have profound effects on the water quality of small headwater streams. These streams often support fisheries of high value. Current knowledge seems to indicate that a definite potential exists for a symbiotic relationship between timber and fisheries management. Maximum development of both resources is attainable only if further research efforts recognize the mutually benefiting aspects of these heretofore separate disciplines. Future research should carefully examine the complex interrelationships between small headwater aquatic ecosystems and the riparian forest environment.     

Spatial and Temporal Patterns in Fish Assemblages Following an Artificially Extended Floodplain Inundation Event, Northern Murray-Darling Basin, Australia

Water extraction from dryland rivers is often associated with declines in the health of river and floodplain ecosystems due to reduced flooding frequency and extent of floodplain inundation. Following moderate flooding in early 2008 in the Narran River, Murray-Darling Basin, Australia, 10,423 ML of water was purchased from agricultural water users and delivered to the river to prolong inundation of its terminal lake system to improve the recruitment success of colonial waterbirds that had started breeding in response to the initial flooding. This study examined the spatial and temporal patterns of fish assemblages in river and floodplain habitats over eight months following flooding to assess the possible ecological benefits of flood extension. Although the abundances of most fish species were greater in river channel habitats, the fish assemblage used floodplain habitats when inundated. Young-of-the-year (4–12 months age) golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) and bony bream (Nematalosa erebi) were consistently sampled in floodplain sites when inundated, suggesting that the floodplain provides rearing habitat for these species. Significant differences in the abundances of fish populations between reaches upstream and downstream of a weir in the main river channel indicates that the effectiveness of the environmental water release was limited by restricted connectivity within the broader catchment. Although the seasonal timing of flood extension may have coincided with sub-optimal primary production, the use of the environmental water purchase is likely to have promoted recruitment of fish populations by providing greater access to floodplain nursery habitats, thereby improving the ability to persist during years of little or no flow.     

Fishing Farmers or Farming Fishers? Fishing Typology of Inland Small-Scale Fishing Households and Fisheries Management in Singkarak Lake, West Sumatra, Indonesia

Technical and socio-economic characteristics are known to determine different types of fishers and their livelihood strategies. Faced with declining fish and water resources, small-scale fisheries engage into transformations in livelihood and fishing practices. The paper is an attempt to understand these changes and their socio-economic patterns, in the case of Singkarak Lake in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Based upon the hypothesis that riparian communities have diverse, complex yet structured and dynamic livelihood systems, the paper’s main objective is to study, document and model the actual diversity in livelihood, practices and performance of inland small-scale fisheries along the Singkarak Lake, to picture how households are adapted to the situation, and propose an updated, workable model (typology) of those for policy. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis were used to develop a typology of fishing households. The results show that small-scale fishers can be classified into different types characterized by distinct livelihood strategies. Three household types are identified, namely “farming fishers” households (type I, 30 %), “fishing farmers” households (type II, 30 %), and “mainly fishers” households (type III, 40 %). There are significant differences among these groups in the number of boats owned, annual fishing income, agriculture income and farming experience. Type I consists of farming fishers, well equipped, with high fishing costs and income, yet with the lowest return on fishing assets. They are also landowners with farming income, showing the lowest return on land capital. Type II includes poor fishing farmers, landowners with higher farming income; they show the highest return on land asset. They have less fishing equipment, costs and income. Type III (mainly fishers) consists of poorer, younger fishers, with highest return on fishing assets and on fishing costs. They have little land, low farming income, and diversified livelihood sources. The nature of their livelihood strategies is discussed for each identified group. This helps to understand the complexity and diversity of small-scale fishers, particularly in the study area which is still poorly known. This paper concludes with policy implication and possible management initiatives for environmentally prudent policy aiming at improvement of fishers’ livelihood.     

Rice versus fish revisited: On the integrated management of floodplain resources in Bangladesh

Disproportionately little attention has been paid to the dry season trade‐off between rice and (inland capture) fish production on the floodplains of Bangladesh, compared to the same trade‐off during the flood season. As the rural economy grows increasingly dominated by dry‐season irrigated rice production, and floodplain land and water come under ever‐increasing pressure during the dry winter months, there is an urgent need to focus attention on these dry months that are so critical to the survival and propagation of the floodplain resident fish, and to the poor people that depend on these fish for their livelihood. This article examines three important dry‐season natural resource constraints to floodplain livelihoods in Bangladesh, and finds a common factor at the heart of all three: rice cultivation on lands at low and very low elevations. The article articulates the system interlinkages that bind these constraints and the long‐run trend towards irrigated rice cropping on lower‐lying lands, and suggests a management approach based on locally tailored strategies to arrest this trend. Apart from its direct relevance to the floodplains of Bangladesh, which support more than 100 million people, these lessons have relevance for river floodplain systems elsewhere in the developing world, notably the Mekong Delta.     

Policies, Regulations, and Eco-ethical Wisdom Relating to Ancient Chinese Fisheries

Marine ecosystems are in serious troubles globally, largely due to the failures of fishery resources management. To restore and conserve fishery ecosystems, we need new and effective governance systems urgently. This research focuses on fisheries management in ancient China. We found that from 5,000 years ago till early modern era, Chinese ancestors had been constantly enthusiastic about sustainable utilization of fisheries resources and natural balance of fishery development. They developed numerous rigorous policies and regulations to guide people to act on natural laws. Being detailed and scientific, the legal systems had gained gratifying enforcement, due to official efforts and folks’ voluntary participation in resource management. In-depth analyses show that people’s consciousness of ecological conservation was derived from the edification of kinds of ancient eco-ethical wisdom, such as totemism, nature worship, Zhou Yi, Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Mohism, etc. All this Chinese classical wisdom have the same cores: “Nature and Man in One” spirit, frugality and “All things are equal” concept. The findings show that eco-ethical thinking is never inconsistent with social ethic systems, and it’s of great importance to give legal effect to usual ecological moral claims and eco-ethical requirements of the public in protecting the environment. The eco-ethical wisdom is efficient in assisting and urging people to fulfill humans’ obligation for nature. Finally, it’s believed that present world fisheries management will benefit a lot from all these ancient Chinese thoughts and practices. People are expected to make the most of the eco-ethical wisdom, strengthen fishery legislation and fully stimulate their voluntary participation in both marine fishery resources conservation and fishery cyclic economy.     

Assessing the Potential for Salmon Recovery via Floodplain Restoration: A Multitrophic Level Comparison of Dredge-Mined to Reference Segments

Pre-restoration studies typically focus on physical habitat, rather than the food-base that supports aquatic species. However, both food and habitat are necessary to support the species that habitat restoration is frequently aimed at recovering. Here we evaluate if and how the productivity of the food-base that supports fish production is impaired in a dredge-mined floodplain within the Yankee Fork Salmon River (YFSR), Idaho (USA); a site where past restoration has occurred and where more has been proposed to help recover anadromous salmonids. Utilizing an ecosystem approach, we found that the dredged segment had comparable terrestrial leaf and invertebrate inputs, aquatic primary producer biomass, and production of aquatic invertebrates relative to five reference floodplains. Thus, the food-base in the dredged segment did not necessarily appear impaired. On the other hand, we observed that off-channel aquatic habitats were frequently important to productivity in reference floodplains, and the connection of these habitats in the dredged segment via previous restoration increased invertebrate productivity by 58%. However, using a simple bioenergetic model, we estimated that the invertebrate food-base was at least 4× larger than present demand for food by fish in dredged and reference segments. In the context of salmon recovery efforts, this observation questions whether additional food-base productivity provided by further habitat restoration would be warranted in the YFSR. Together, our findings highlight the importance of studies that assess the aquatic food-base, and emphasize the need for more robust ecosystem models that evaluate factors potentially limiting fish populations that are the target of restoration.     

Social Capital and Fisheries Management: The Case of Chilika Lake in India

This article shows how social capital impacts fisheries management at the local level in Chilika Lake, located in the state of Orissa in India. In Chilika, the different fishing groups established norms and “rules of the game” including, but not limited to, spatial limits that determine who can fish and in what areas, temporal restrictions about when and for how long people may fish, gear constraints about what harvesting gear may be used by each group, and physical controls on size and other characteristics of fish that may be harvested. A survey of the members of fishing groups has shown that the bonding social capital is strong within the Chilika fishing groups. Bonding and bridging social capital keeps the fishers together in times of resource scarcity, checks violations of community rules and sanctions, and strengthens the community fisheries management. In contrast, linking social capital in Chilika appears to be weak, as is evident from the lack of trust in external agencies, seeking the help of formal institutions for legal support, and increasing conflicts. Trust and cooperation among fishers is crucial in helping to build the social capital. A social capital perspective on fisheries governance suggests that there should be a rethinking of priorities and funding mechanisms, from “top-down” fisheries management towards “co-management” with a focus on engendering rights and responsibilities for fishers and their communities.     

Community Perspectives and Conservation Needs for Dugongs (Dugong dugon) Along the Andaman Coast of Thailand

The dugong is classified as vulnerable to extinction by the World Conservation Union on the basis of declines in area or extent of occupancy, habitat quality, and actual or potential levels of exploitation. In Thailand, the largest groups of dugongs are found near islands off the Andaman coast. The authors conducted a 2-year project that included dugong population and habitat assessment as well as interviews with local fishers. The results indicate declining populations of dugongs. The largest threat to dugongs is incidental catch in fishing nets. The numbers of deaths reported place the dugong population along the Andaman Sea in danger of extirpation. Other threats include seagrass destruction both from fishing and coastal development and the use of dugong parts for medicinal purposes. Villagers still show strong ties with dugongs, and the majority favor establishing more large protected areas for the species. These should arise from an integrated national dugong and seagrass conservation strategy formulated by concerned stakeholders from government, nongovernmental organizations, scientists, and local communities. The strategy needs to be both top down and bottom up in its formation to balance existing and potential uses as well as conflicts between artisanal and commercial fishers. The strategy should include the development of educational materials and enforceable regulations, as well as the designation of community-protected seagrass beds and a system of dugong sanctuaries along the Andaman coast. An integrated management plan is needed urgently, with the continued input of concerned scientists, to monitor and increase knowledge of dugong behavior and distribution.     

A Multiscale Conceptual Framework for Integrated Ecogeomorphological Research to Support Stream Naturalization in the Agricultural Midwest

The complexity of fluvial systems necessitates interdisciplinary research in fluvial geomorphology and aquatic ecology to develop a fundamental understanding of interconnections among biotic and abiotic aspects of these systems. Integrated knowledge of this type is vital for environmental management of streams in human-dominated environments. A conceptual framework is presented for integrating geomorphological and ecological research on streams in East Central Illinois, USA, a glaciated low-relief agricultural landscape. The framework embodies a multiscale perspective in which a geomorphological conception of the fluvial system is used to define a hierarchy of characteristic spatial scales for exploring important linkages between stream geomorphology and aquatic ecology. The focus ecologically is on fish, because a rich body of historical information exists on fisheries in East Central Illinois and because past work has suggested that availability of physical habitat is a major factor influencing the community characteristics of fish in this human-altered environment. The hierarchy embodied in the framework includes the network, link, planform, bar unit, bar element, and bedform/grain scales. Background knowledge from past research is drawn upon to identify potential linkages between geomorphological and ecological conditions at each of these scales. The conceptual framework is useful for guiding integrated ecogeomorphological research at specific scales and across different scales. It also is helpful for illustrating how widespread human modification of streams has catastrophically altered the scalar structure of fluvial systems in East Central Illinois. Knowledge emerging from the integrated research provides a basis for environmental-management schemes directed toward stream naturalization.     

Ranch Ownership Change and New Approaches to Water Resource Management in Southwestern Montana: Implications for Fisheries1

Abstract:  This article reports on a survey of ranch owners in high amenity areas in southwestern Montana that have experienced marked ownership change over the last two decades. Specifically, we focus on findings from a set of questions targeting water resource and riparian area management. After reviewing the results, we consider how new owners may be managing water resources differently than longtime owners and what the ecological implications of this shift in management might be for Montana’s prized wild fisheries. Uses more closely associated with new owners than with longtime owners include water reallocation to instream uses, aquatic and riparian ecosystem restoration, and fish pond construction. These uses have both positive and negative impacts on the region’s fisheries. Our findings suggest that current laws and institutions guiding the management of water resources and the aquatic and riparian ecosystems they support may not be adequate to address emerging conservation opportunities and challenges.     

A case for gender equity in governance of the Okavango Delta fisheries in Botswana

Fish is a major source of livelihood for the majority of people living around the Okavango Delta in northwestern Botswana. Gender dynamics and governance regimes determine differential access to, and control of, resources between women and men in the area. The purpose of this case study is to critically assess the embeddedness of gendered inequities in the governance of Okavango Delta fishery. Primary data was collected through focus group discussions and face‐to‐face interviews of 96 basket fishers from five villages along the Panhandle area of the Okavango River. The study found that past and present Okavango Delta fishery policy and programme interventions tended to entrench rather than minimize gendered disparities between women and men fishers' access to and control over fish resources, asset accumulation and employment opportunities. Basket fishers have intimate knowledge of flood variability, fish migration and habitat and use this knowledge to make decisions about when and where to harvest what fish species. Women fishers' ecological knowledge, interests and concerns however, have been excluded from current zoning and closed season regulations and co‐management structures. The paper concludes that past and current development interventions as well as the regulatory framework continue to entrench pre‐existing gender relations in the fishery sector which excludes, disempowers and marginalizes women fishers. We recommend innovative co‐management and local based structures which recognize the diversity of interests and interest groups.     

The Ethics and Sustainability of Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture

The global seafood industry (capture fisheries and aquaculture) is a vital source of food, income, livelihoods, and culture. Seafood demand is steadily rising due to growth in the global human population, affluence, and per capita consumption. Seafood supply is also growing, despite declining wild fish stocks, with phenomenal advances in aquaculture, that is, the cultivation of aquatic organisms. Aquaculture supplied 42 % of the world’s fish in 2012 and is forecast to eclipse capture fisheries production by 2030. The balance between these two seafood production systems has profound implications for global food security, income distribution, and ecological sustainability. Here, a qualitative analysis of the ethics and sustainability of capture fisheries and aquaculture is presented. An innovative practical ethics approach is introduced which adapts the ethical matrix, a conceptual tool for analyzing the wellbeing, autonomy, and justice of different interest groups, and Rapfish, a rapid appraisal technique used to evaluate the sustainability of fisheries along six performance modalities, including ethics. Using case studies of global large- and small-scale capture fisheries and generalized carnivorous and omnivorous aquaculture systems, I show that human institutions and social actors interact in complex governance processes to influence seafood ethics and sustainability.