试点碳市场配额有偿分配经验及对全国碳市场的借鉴意义分析

我国7省市碳排放权交易试点经过多年实践，积累了宝贵经验。在配额分配方面，多数试点在免费分配的基础上进行了配额有偿分配的探索，形成了各具特色的有偿分配实践。研究表明，试点碳市场配额有偿分配的经验对全国碳市场配额分配具有重要的参考借鉴意义。建议结合全国碳市场建设和发展实际以及配额分配实施方案的制定，科学合理设计有偿分配相关规则，并建立相应的监管机制。     

行业碳排放权的初始配额分配——文献综述

建立全国统一的碳排放权交易市场是我国积极应对全球气候变化的重要措施与实践,而碳排放权初始配额分配是建设有效碳市场的重点和难点。当前对碳排放权初始配额分配以行业为研究对象的较少,但高能耗行业是能源管理和碳排放总量控制的重点,研究行业之间的碳排放权初始配额分配具有重要的现实意义。在梳理现有的国内外行业碳配额分配相关文献的基础上,对行业分配原则、分配指标、模型应用和分配结果等进行分析,以期厘清行业之间碳排放权初始配额分配的关键问题和重要环节,并对行业碳排放权配额分配的发展提出建议。     

中国排污权有偿使用定价及政策影响研究

排放配额的价格是排污权有偿使用政策的关键要素之一。本研究从分析排污权有偿使用政策的内涵出发,厘清有偿使用政策与已有排污收费政策的区别,排污收费是企业为污染物排放造成对环境损害而支付的补偿,而有偿使用费是企业为污染物排放占用环境容量资源支付的稀缺租金。本研究同时考虑了现行排污收费政策和总量控制政策的影响,基于最优化控制理论建立了COD和NH_3-N两种水污染物为独立变量的价格模型,并对有偿使用政策执行后可能带来的影响进行了模拟预测。     

全球碳排放权分配与减排分担研究——基于环境约束与公平感受的视角

排放权分配与减排分担始终是国际气候治理的关键问题,基于2℃环境约束与公平感受视角,利用多原则综合加权的分配方法,对全球排放权分配与减排分担展开研究,其结论如下:(1)在温升控制目标下,全球年均排放空间为177.42亿t;满足公平感受要求的全球年均配额为207.59亿t;以2015年实际排放为例,全球年均贡献减排与责任减排分别为30.17亿t、120.42亿t。(2)应用六大单一原则的排放权配额分配,其结果相差悬殊;发达国家和地区普遍偏好等产出原则,发展中国家和地区偏好排放责任原则;基于公平感受的综合加权分配方案降低了单一原则分配的规则"刚性",能缓解分配中的"南北"失衡现象。(3)减排分担结果显示,分担集中于少数Ⅰ类地区的国家和地区,而大多数Ⅴ类地区的国家和地区减排分担不高,当前全球仍处于责任减排阶段。因此,排放权分配要在公平与可行、总量目标与个体标准之间寻求平衡,充分挖掘减排潜力;减排分担应坚持两个区分,减排目标实现按三阶段渐进。     

排污权初始配置的相关问题及其完善

排污权的初始配置是排污权交易的重要组成部分,但目前我国排污初始配置中存在着理论依据缺乏、法律制度缺位、分配机制不规范等诸多问题。实践中可通过确定排污权的性质,寻找排污权正当性依据;建立健全排污权分配的相关法律制度;多标准确定排污权人;建立以有偿分配为主、无偿分配为辅,多种分配方式相结合,因地制宜的排污权分配方式来解决排污权初始分配的相关问题。     

浙江省初始排污权的分配问题

在排污权的建立和运作中,排放总量的测算和排污权初始分配是整个交易的基础。阐述了国内外排污权初始分配概况,分析了浙江省排污权初始分配环节中存在的问题,对浙江省排污权初始分配的发展提出了若干建议。     

碳责任账户的目标原则、分配逻辑与框架构建：账户建立

气候变化是全人类面临的共同挑战。实施碳排放责任分配是促进多方排放行为主体为应对气候变化采取减排行动的重要手段。由于攸关各参与主体的实际利益，基于不同的分配视角（如生产侧、消费侧等）、减排目标（碳排放总量、碳排放强度等）和分配原则等，碳排放责任分配研究经历了一系列的发展与演化。本文对碳排放责任的历史发展和分配原则演变进行综述，阐述了以公平、效率以及兼具公平和效率为目标导向的碳排放责任分配机制，并从排放配额、排放要求和减排目标三个方面对基于供应链的企业碳责任分配进行了探讨。最后，提出在生产过程日益分散、空间生产碎片化的当前环境下，需要沿着生产网络、确定基于供应链的碳责任分配方案，以激发和鼓励供应链所有成员为减缓气候变化做出共同努力。     

碳排放权配额管理体系的比较和借鉴

在地方性试点的基础上,我国已在电力行业启动全国性碳排放权交易市场建设。配额管理不仅直接影响参与者的经济利益,还决定着碳排放权交易机制能否成功建立和持续运行。从配额总量设定、地区和企业层面的配额分配、配额的调控和灵活管理机制等角度总结比较了各国碳排放权配额管理制度设计的经验教训,并从五个方面提出了对我国全国性碳交易市场建设的启示。     

重庆市基于排放绩效的火电行业二氧化硫总量控制研究

本文介绍了排放绩效及排放绩效方法在火电行业二氧化硫总量控制方面的应用，并对重庆市火电机组及其二氧化硫排放状况进行了全面调查，根据重庆市二氧化硫污染防治的需要制定了各时段机组“十一五”期间的排放绩效控制标准，利用排放绩效方法测算了重庆市火电行业二氧化硫总量控制目标，提出了总量配额分配方法。     

居民生活用电碳排放交易机制研究

个人排放交易被认为可以促进居民参与碳减排,但是因其减排收益难以覆盖高昂的建立和运行成本,降低了公众接受度。本文提出除了考虑碳减排的收益外,更需要关注个人排放交易机制的教育价值、形成正确的激励以及鼓励创新的价值,并提出可以基于当前国内多地实行的阶梯电价制度,利用电力系统现有的用户网络和账户系统,建立居民生活用电碳排放交易机制,以降低成本并实现上述价值。在此基础上,就居民生活用电碳排放交易机制的配额设定与分配、配额交易以及清缴问题做了细致的分析,并提出绿色电力作为补充电力可以免费获得碳配额以促进绿色消费。同时,比较分析了在居民生活用电交易机制和阶梯电价制度下,不同居民家庭以及电力公司的用电成本(收益),指出了其在形成正确的激励方面的作用。最后指出在条件成熟的情况下,居民生活用电碳排放交易机制可以扩展到居民的其他能源消费领域,以实现更为全面的个人排放交易。     

碳排放交易体系的政策灵活性:国际经验及启示

在《联合国气候变化框架公约》和《京都议定书》的背景下,越来越多的国家开始关注全球气候变暖的问题。考虑到碳排放交易体系比碳税更具有政治可行性,不少国家或地区开始实施碳排放交易体系,以最低的减排成本来达到温室气体减排目标。然而,采用碳排放交易体系,其排放总量是固定的,而减排成本是不确定的,可能会出现由于政策或外部冲击而产生的配额价格异常波动的现象。因此,为确保碳排放交易体系的成本有效性,政策灵活性十分重要。在理想情况下,碳排放市场具有完全的时间灵活性(包括长期的履约期、自由的配额储存与预借)和空间灵活性(即建立全球碳市场),这将对增强市场流动性、降低减排成本、缓解价格波动起到重要的作用。然而,由于政策设计需要考虑更多因素,实际上理想状态很难达到。本文将对国外碳排放交易体系的政策灵活性设计进行较为系统的分析和比较,尤其关注履约期的长短、配额的跨期使用、配额的抵消、区域碳市场连接等方面的具体政策设计,这对我国在7个省市进行碳排放交易试点以及今后建立全国性的碳排放交易体系有较强的借鉴意义。     

Decomposing patterns of emission intensity in the EU and China: how much does trade matter?

We use data from the World Input-Output Database to examine channels through which CO₂ emissions are embodied within, and imported into, the European production in 2005 and in 2009. We use an input–output price model to simulate the effect that a rise in the price of emissions trading system (ETS) allowances would have on the final price of goods. We find a reduction in emission intensity, which was greatest in those sectors regulated under ETS. Finally we examine the trade between China and the EU to study possible increases in carbon leakage. Results show that emissions embodied in imported intermediate goods have increased in all sectors.     

Allocation and banking in Korean permits trading

This paper investigates how Korean industry would respond to four different allocation and banking options in CO₂ permit trading within a fully dynamic computational general equilibrium framework. Four different allocations are categorized—a uniform allocation and three performance-based allocations. We explore that performance-based allocation and banking lower losses in Korean potential GDP, allowing energy-intensive industry more flexibility in inter-temporal decision making on purchasing and selling permits. The steel industry can derive a particular advantage from a performance-based allocation with respect to energy use, while the semiconductor industry would prefer a performance-based allocation with respect to value-added. The two key conclusions are (i) the Korean economy should replace an absolute allocation with a performance-based allocation, and (ii) the banking of permits enables market players to reallocate allowances more efficiently in a long-term commitment period. These results support the findings of the key study by Kling and Rubin (1997).     

Greenhouse gas emission reductions in the post-Kyoto period: Emission intensity changes required under the 'contraction and convergence' approach

Various approaches have been proposed for allocating commitments to countries regarding the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. One of these methods is the ‘contraction and convergence’ approach, which defines emission permits on the basis of converging per capita emissions under a contracting global emission profile. The approach is unique in its simplicity. Only two major issues need to be negotiated and agreed upon: the target atmospheric concentration of CO₂ and the date when the entitlements are to converge at equal per capita allocations. According to the contraction and convergence approach, developing countries can continue their current emission trends, whereas industrialized countries should reduce their emissions quite dramatically. This regime represents a shift away from the current approach towards defining commitments for all parties and their evolution over the long term. This article analyses how allocation schemes determined by the contraction and convergence approach might affect certain OECD and non‐OECD countries. Results for eleven countries selected for analysis (United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Japan, China, Venezuela, Thailand, Brazil, India and Indonesia) reveal that trends observed in the past few decades in most industrialized countries will lead to the contraction and convergence target.     

美国和中国油气系统甲烷排放状况

文章通过调研、分析美国和中国近年来油气系统中甲烷排放状况,对比分析美国与中国应用的主要甲烷计算方法,表明:美国油气系统中对甲烷排放量的计算方法可采用1996IPCC指南中提供的第一层次(Tier1)和第二层次(Tier2)法,计算结果相对比较准确,甲烷的排放呈逐年增加趋势;中国油气系统中甲烷排放量的计算方法目前只限于1996IPCC指南中提供的Tier1法,中国甲烷排放量相对于美国等发达国家较少,但整体呈增长趋势。     

Evaluation of the First Phase of Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides Provisions of the 1990 Clean Air Act: A Plant-Based Approach

Electric power generating plants that use coal were among the key targets of Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act. Under the first phase of the act, 110 coal-fired electric power plants were required to reduce their sulfur dioxide emissions by 1995 and nitrogen oxide emissions by 1996. Phase 2 of the act requires even greater reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions by 2000 and nitrogen oxide emissions by 2008. This study examines whether the 107 targeted plants (three plants went off-line) have achieved the desired sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission levels. The analysis of sulfur dioxide is based on data from 1990, 1995, and 1999. The findings show that although sulfur oxide increased by 3% from 1995 to 1999, it decreased by 45% over the 1990–1999 period at the firm level for the targeted firms. The findings also indicate that the overall reduction in sulfur dioxide was achieved by utilizing low sulfur coal and by purchasing emission allowances. So far as nitrogen oxides are concerned, there has been a reduction of 14% over the 1990–1999 period, of which 7% was achieved during the 1995–1999 period. An evaluation of emissions at the plant level indicates that several plants do not meet the emissions level for sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides. These results provide a mixed scorecard for reduction in emissions both for sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Even though there is reduction in the emissions on an overall basis at the firm level, several plants that have not been able to reduce emissions deserve special attention to meet the goals of the act in reducing emissions.     

Policy Integration as a Success Factor for Emissions Trading

Emissions trading will not be able to become the single instrument of a national climate policy because of costs for monitoring of greenhouse gases and transfers of allowances. Thus, it is important to assess optimal ways of integrating emissions trading into national climate policy mixes, thus leading to a more efficient policy, especially by allowing the use of transboundary transactions. The implemented trading systems of the UK and Denmark, the agreed EU one, and the planned ones of Norway are used as case studies. In the UK, the introduction of an energy tax on industry was the catalyst that led to the development of emissions trading, voluntary agreements, and two subsidy programs. However, in Denmark trading was limited in scope and not integrated with the successful emission tax. The EU and Norwegian trading schemes both have a large scope and integrate international transfers; the former is integrated with other instruments to avoid free riding. Policy integration will thus enhance the efficiency improvements that emissions trading can introduce.     

碳排放交易制度下城市减排的机会成本研究——基于中国碳排放试点城市的实证检验

作为全球气候治理的重要手段,碳排放交易制度受到了广泛的关注与讨论。基于此,本文采用我国2010-2016年城市面板数据,运用非参数方法构建方向性环境距离函数测算了2009-2015年城市减排的机会成本,计算结果显示,试点地区与非试点地区的碳排放的机会成本整体表现为上升的趋势,且试点地区的碳排放的机会成本总体低于非试点地区。在测算城市减排机会成本的基础上,运用双重差分法来检验碳排放交易制度的有效性。经检验发现：碳排放交易制度有利于降低城市减排的机会成本,然而由于碳排放交易制度还存在碳排放权初始分配制度缺失、碳排放交易制度的定价机制扭曲等问题,因此其对降低城市减排的机会成本作用较小,并且进一步通过对政策时间趋势的分析得出政策效应随时间推移而逐渐减弱。     

Gas emissions from dairy cows fed typical diets of Midwest, South, and West regions of the United States

Gas emissions were determined for dairy cows fed three diets formulated to represent feed ingredients typical of the Midwest, South, or West regions of the United States. Dairy cows were housed and monitored in 12 environmentally controlled rooms (4 cows diet). Two experiments were performed, representing two lactation stages (initial days in milk were 115 ± 39 d in Stage 1 and 216 ± 48 d in Stage 2). The results demonstrated that the combination of different dietary ingredients resulted in different gas emissions while maintaining similar dry matter intake (DMI) and milk yield (MY). Diet effect on ammonia (NH) emissions was more prominent in Stage 1. During Stage 1, cows fed the Midwest diet had the highest daily NH emission, corresponding to the highest crude protein (CP) concentration among the three regions. The differences in NH emissions (39.0%) were much larger than the percent difference in CP concentrations between diets (6.8%). Differences in N intake, N excretion, or milk urea N alone may not serve as a strong indicator of the potential to reduce NH emissions. Lower emissions of methane (CH) per unit DMI or per unit MY were observed for cows offered the South diet during Stage 1 as compared with that from cows offered the Midwest or West diets. No diet effect was observed for hydrogen sulfide (HS) emission per unit S intake, nor for nitrous oxide (NO) emission. The measured NH and CH emissions were comparable, but the NO emissions were much higher than those reported for tie-stall dairy barns in the literature.