我国碳交易制度巩固脱贫攻坚成果的问题及对策

本文从我国碳达峰和碳中和的目标愿景、碳交易体系中的CCER抵消交易、建立巩固脱贫攻坚成果的长效机制等方面对我国碳交易制度巩固脱贫攻坚成果的宏观形势做出研判,系统梳理了我国利用碳交易制度巩固脱贫攻坚成果的主要问题。提出了完善我国碳交易制度巩固脱贫攻坚成果的建议:一是重启CCER项目申请备案,协调国内国际碳交易,增加碳交易的脱贫攻坚资源;二是统筹项目签发与碳抵消规则,调整项目类型和地域限制,提高碳交易的脱贫攻坚效率;三是建立低碳交易数据共享平台,提升项目交易活跃度,保障碳交易的脱贫攻坚质量。     

中国自愿减排市场五年的得与失

正中国自愿减排市场在过去五年的发展过程中,起到了帮助碳市场控排企业低成本履约、引导低碳项目融资、促进自愿减排等作用。然而,其自身及随之而来的问题也越来越多的暴露。本文通过介绍中国自愿减排市场的概况,分析其在碳市场及社会、经济中发挥的作用,详述其面临的困境,最后提出相关建议,包括:明确CCER在碳市场中的长期作用;控制备案总量及确定优先备案的类型;加强市场监管及信息披露;加强各部门的沟通及相关政策的协调;扩大CCER的自愿用途;助力国际谈判及"一带一路"推进等。     

温室气体自愿性减排市场现状及其在中国的前景

自愿性减排（Voluntary emission reduction,VER）是指完全出于自愿的、相关法律没有要求或者超过法律要求的温室气体或者大气污染物的减排行为,是近年来最重要的温室气体减排的新兴形式之一。本文概述了自愿性减排与自愿性碳市场（Voluntary carbon markets）的特征,从目前国际上自愿碳市场的交易变化、采用标准、登记与交易等方面总结了自愿性碳交易演变趋势,探讨了我国自愿碳市场发展中存在的问题和前景,并提出了相应建议。     

解读《温室气体自愿减排交易管理暂行办法》

本文对发改委颁布的（《温室气体自愿减排交易管理暂行办法》进行了解读、分析其特点并指出尚需进一步解决的问题。     

自愿减排项目碳泄漏：内涵、类别及应对

自愿减排项目是碳排放交易市场抵消机制的运行载体,灵活的自愿减排抵消机制是碳排放交易市场的补充,对应对全球气候变化问题具有重要意义。碳泄漏,作为严重影响抵消项目减排效率的热点问题值得关注。目前,中国已形成较大规模的自愿减排市场,截至2018年底,国家发展改革委共签发了约7200万tCO_2当量减排量,我国在建立健全自愿减排抵消市场机制的过程中,需要把握项目碳泄漏的负外部性这一实质,厘清其运行机理并积极应对。本文旨在系统阐述该问题,并为进一步实现抵消项目减排潜力提供思路和方向:从自愿减排项目碳泄漏的内涵与定义出发,首先对项目碳泄漏的分类进行梳理,并依据产生途径的不同重点分析了活动转移排放、生命周期、市场路径、生态以及技术泄漏的作用机制、影响因素及其相应的研究方法;其次从具体项目应用、系统项目应用和宏观应用三个层面讨论了应对自愿减排项目碳泄漏问题的管理对策;最后结合我国自愿减排抵消市场的实际情况,建议未来抵消项目碳泄漏的应对和管理应在分门别类对其概念进行精准定义的基础上将解决措施的成本效益考虑在内,此外,在评估泄漏量时需要同时测算不同类型的碳泄漏,探究其协同效应以免高估其泄漏程度。     

我国林业碳汇市场供需研究——以广东长隆碳汇造林项目为例

广东长隆碳汇造林项目作为我国首个获得国家发展和改革委员会签发的林业温室气体自愿减排(CCER)项目,对于我国林业碳汇参与应对气候变化具有重要的示范意义。本文对广东长隆碳汇造林项目进行了成本收益分析,发现林业碳汇交易价格被远远低估,从而使该项目不具备经济上的可复制性。为探究交易价格被低估的原因,本文考察了林业碳汇市场的供需关系,发现目前碳交易市场对林业碳汇CCER需求不足仅是表象,供需错配才是实质。首先,从需求侧来看,广东省碳排放配额设置过于宽松,缺乏林业碳汇CCER的接纳能力;其次,就供给侧而言,CCER的交易成本很高,且项目申报要求业主为企业法人,这严重限制了林业碳汇CCER的有效供给。鉴于以上问题,本文提出应同时从林业碳汇CCER的需求侧和供给侧着手改革。就需求侧而言,收紧广东省碳排放配额总量,并将林业碳汇CCER交易由补充机制改为配额管理。就供给侧而言,可以结合广东省推进林业碳普惠制度,将项目申报主体和交易主体放宽到独立法人和个人,广泛吸收民间资本、培育大型林业企业开展碳汇造林项目;降低碳汇项目进入门槛,根据省情制定方法学,简化签批手续。     

《巴黎协定》下自愿碳市场的运行模式及对我国的影响

制定净零排放目标的企业数量快速增长助推自愿碳市场迅猛发展。由于能够吸引私营部门资金、降低新兴技术成本、助力难减排领域的减排行动，自愿碳市场可在弥合目前的减排差距方面发挥重要作用。《巴黎协定》确定的全球温升控制目标促进了碳中和行动的广泛开展，对自愿碳市场的运行提出了新的要求。本文深入分析了自愿碳市场在新气候治理阶段中面临的机遇和挑战，识别了影响未来自愿碳市场运行的关键要素，总结了自愿碳市场的四种主要运行模式及其发展路径。同时，本文从项目开发商、需求侧企业和政府等三个层面系统分析了新形势下自愿碳市场对我国的影响并给出了对策建议。     

我国碳交易市场的背景、现状及发展建议

作为世界上温室气体最大的排放国,我国不仅在国家层面上面临着巨大的减排压力,同样在行业和企业层面也面临着减排的压力。为了缓解气候变化,降低温室气体排放,改变我国高排放、高能耗的传统工业发展路径,建立成熟完善的碳排放权交易市场迫在眉睫。文章介绍了国内外碳交易市场的发展现状,分析了我国碳交易市场建立过程中存在的不足之处,并借鉴国外碳交易市场的先进理念及建设经验,提出了进一步完善我国碳交易市场的相关建议。     

我国排污权交易制度运行进展、挑战与对策研究

进一步调动市场的积极性、充分发挥市场机制在治污减排中的杠杆调节作用是“十四五”时期生态环境保护制度建设的重点。当前，我国排污权交易市场仍存在活跃性、稳定性较低、激励不足等问题。本文对我国排污权交易制度建立的历史进程进行了梳理，采用文本分析和文献计量的方法分析了我国排污权交易制度的实践和研究现状。在此基础上，进一步识别了我国排污权交易面临的问题与挑战，并提出改进排污权交易制度的思路与建议，包括建立统一市场、信息公开等。     

排污权交易在嘉兴实现“落地”

清洁发展机制，就是碳排放交易机制（CDM）其实也是一种类似排污权交易的减排形式。CDM（Clean Development Mechanism），是《京都议定书》中引入的三个灵活履约机制之一。已完成工业革命的发达国家应对全球变暖承担更多的历史责任，因此，《京都议定书》只给工业化国家制定了减排任务，但没有对发展中国家作这个要求。发达国家通过在发展中国家实施具有温室气体减排效果的项目，把项目所产生的温室气体减少的排放量作为履行京都议定书所规定的一部分义务。     

BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ESTUARINE/COASTAL POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Sustained interest in and concern about the health status of the aquatic environment has resulted in extensive research focused on (1) effects of pollution on survival, growth, and reproduction of resource species at all life stages; (2) diseases of fish and shellfish, as they may be related to pollution and as they may serve as indicators of environmental stress; and (3) contaminant body burdens in fish and shellfish - their effects on the aquatic animals and their potential effects on humans. Effects, lethal and sublethal, of pollutants on life history stages of fish and shellfish have been documented, as have impacts on local stocks in badly degraded habitats, but as yet there has been no adequate quantitative demonstration of effects on entire aquatic species - probably because of the difficulty in sorting out relative effects of the many environmental factors that influence abundance. Sublethal effects, especially those that result in disease, have been examined intensively, and some diseases and disease syndromes have been associated statistically with pollution. Other pollution indicators (biochemical, physiological, genetic, behavioral, and ecological) have also received some attention, as have body burdens of contaminants in aquatic species. Research, especially that conducted during the past decade, has done much to clarify the many pathways and toxic effects of contaminants on aquatic animals, and has also helped to identify mechanisms for survival of fish and shellfish in the presence of environmental changes caused by human activities.     

Definition Procedures Have Little Effect on Performance of Environmental Classifications of Streams and Rivers

Mapped environmental classifications are defined using various procedures, but there has been little evaluation of the differences in their ability to discriminate variation in independent ecological characteristics. We tested the performance of environmental classifications of the streams and rivers of France that had been defined from the same environmental data using geographic regionalization and numerical classification of individual river valley segments. Test data comprised invertebrate assemblages, water chemistry, and hydrological indexes obtained from sites throughout France. Classification performance was measured by analysis of similarity (ANOSIM). Geometric regions defined by a regular grid and without regard to environmental variables and a posteriori classifications based on clustering the test datasets defined lower and upper bounds of performance for a given number of classes. Differences in classification performances were generally small. The ANOSIM statistics for the a posteriori classifications were around twice that of all environmental classifications, including geometrically defined regions. The hydro-ecoregions performed slightly better for the invertebrate data and the network classification performed slightly better for the chemistry and hydrological data. Our results indicate that environmental classifications that are defined using different procedures can be comparable in terms of their ability to discriminate variation of ecological characteristics and that alleged differences in performance arising from different classification procedures can be small relative to unexplained variation. We conclude that definition procedures might have little effect on the performance of large-scale environmental classifications and decisions over which procedures to use should be based primarily on pragmatic considerations.     

Journalists' views of advertiser pressures on agricultural news

All major journalism ethical codes explicitly state that journalists should protect editorial copy from undue influence by outside sources. However, much of the previous research on agricultural information has concentrated on what information various media communicate (gatekeeping studies) or communication's role in increasing innovation adoption (diffusion studies). Few studies have concentrated specifically on organizational and structural constraints that might adversely affect agricultural journalists' ethical standards; those that have, focus largely on farm magazines. A study of newspaper reporters who cover agricultural news found that the most pressing ethical concern is the effect of advertiser (agri-business) pressure on editorial copy, and that their concerns in general parallel those of farm magazine writers and editors. The majority reported being in situations in which they might be exposed to advertiser pressure, including pressures to change or withhold editorial copy. Large minorities suggested that advertising pressures affect the overall environment in which agricultural journalists work, and more than one in ten said they allow advertiser pressures to influence editorial decisions. The newspaper reporters who cover agricultural beats showed slightly more resistance to advertiser pressure than did farm magazine editors in a parallel study.     

Effect of Light on Biodegradation of Estrone, 17β‐Estradiol,and 17α‐Ethinylestradiol in Stream Sediment

Biodegradation of [A‐ring ¹⁴C] Estrone (E1), 17β‐estradiol (E2), and 17α‐ethinylestradiol (EE2) to ¹⁴CO₂ was investigated under light and dark conditions in microcosms containing epilithon or sediment collected from Boulder Creek, Colorado. Mineralization of the estrogen A‐ring was observed in all sediment treatments, but not epilithon treatments. No difference in net mineralization between light and dark treatments was observed for ¹⁴C‐E2. Net mineralization of ¹⁴C‐E1 and ¹⁴C‐EE2 was enhanced in light treatments. Extents of ¹⁴CO₂ accumulation and rates of mineralization were significantly greater for E2 than E1 under dark conditions, but were comparable under light conditions. These results indicate substantial differences in the uptake and metabolism of E1 and E2 in the environment and suggest biorecalcitrance of E1 relative to E2 in light‐limited environments. The extent of ¹⁴CO₂ accumulation and rate of mineralization for EE2 in dark treatments were less than half of that observed for E2 and generally lower than for E1, consistent with previous reports of EE2 biorecalcitrance. However, ¹⁴CO₂ accumulation and rates of mineralization were comparable for EE2, E2, and E1 under light conditions. These results indicate photoactivation and/or phototransformation/photodegradation processes can substantially enhance heterotrophic biodegradation of estrogens in sunlit environments and may play an important role in estrogen transport and attenuation.     

Bioremediation of Soils by Plant–Microbe Systems

Abstract

Sustainable ecosystems can be designed to eliminate environmental toxins and reduce pathogen loads through the direct and indirect consequences of plant and microbial activities. We present an approach to the bioremediation of disturbed environments, focusing on petroleum hydrocarbon (PHC) contaminants. Treatment consists of incorporating a plant-based amendment to enhance ecosystem productivity and physiochemical degradation followed by the establishment of plants to serve as oxidizers and foundations for microbial communities. Promising amendments for widespread use are entire plants of the water fern Azolla and seed meal of Brassica napus (rapeseed). An inexpensive byproduct from the manufacture of biodiesel and lubricants, rapeseed meal is high in nitrogen (6% wt/wt), stimulates >100-fold increases in populations of resident Streptomyces species, and suppresses fungal infection of roots subsequently cultivated in the amended soil. Synergistic enzymatic and chemical activities of plant and microbial metabolism in root zones transform and degrade soil contaminants. Emphasis is given to mechanisms that enable PHC functionalization via reactive molecular species.     

Energetics and environmental costs of agriculture in a dry tropical region of India

The present article, based on a study of five village ecosystems, assesses the energy efficiency of rain-fed agriculture in a dry tropical environment and the impact of agricultural activity on the surrounding natural ecosystems. Agronomic yield is insufficient to meet the food requirement of the human population, hence 11.5%–49.7% of the required amount of food grains are imported from the market. Energy requirements of five studied agroecosystems are subsidized considerably by the surrounding forest in the form of fodder and firewood. Natural ecosystems supply about 80%–95% of fodder needs and 81%–100% of fuelwood needs. The output-input ratio of agriculture indicated that, on average, 4.1 units of energy are expended to obtain one unit of agronomic energy. Of this, 3.9 units are supplied by the natural ecosystem. In addition, 38% of the extracted firewood is marketed. The illegal felling and lopping of trees result in ever-increasing concentric circles of forest destruction around the villages and together with excessive grazing results in savannization. The forests can be conserved by encouraging fuelwood plantations (0.7 ha/ha cultivated land) and developing village pastures (1.6 ha/ha cultivated land) and reducing the livestock numbers. Agricultural production in the region can be stabilized by introducing improved dry farming techniques such as intercropping, planned rainwater management, and adequate use of fertilizers.     

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “METROPOLITAN WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS?”1

ABSTRACT The term “institution” and several variants are used frequently in the literature on metropolitan water management. The state-of-the art investigation on which this paper is based revealed that 1) many uses of the term do not include careful definitions; 2) many users of the term seemed unaware of the general, theoretical literature on the subject of institutions; 3) there was little consistency among uses, either in the practical literature dealing with water or in the conceptual literature dealing with theories of institutions or institutionalization; 4) some usages were without significant meaning; 5) in many cases the term was used as a kind of “black box” to account for behavioral, societal, or managerial factors; 6) the term was often used as a synonym for “organization”. This latter use is frequently found in federal reports, including National Water Commission studies, and is most unfortunate because it tends to slight significant social-psychological factors. A suggested definition is: “An institution is the structured result or outcome of a process by which values are articulated, arranged, and communicated, having continuity over time, and influencing behavior of persons who did not necessarily participate in formulating those values (norms).”     

Provincial development plans in Zimbabwe: an analysis of their content,structure and methodology

Zimbabwean provincial plans were instituted to help in the achievement of the national goal of the creation of an egalitarian, socialist and integrated society. The national goal itself was adopted as an antithesis to the dualist society characterised by spatial, economic, social, politican and technological inequalities that Zimbabwe inherited from colonialism. This meant that provincial plans had to play both a functional (or growth allocating/distribution) and a territorial (or redistribution) role.

This paper reviews their role in achieving the national goal by examining their functions, content, structure and methodology. The paper concludes that because of their nature, provincial plans are not suitable tools for the achievement of the national goal.     

Waste minimisation in practice

One of the major hindrances to waste minimisation on a construction site is the difficulty in establishing a methodology and using this methodology to benchmark future construction projects. This paper introduces SMARTWaste, a software tool that has been used to audit, reduce and target waste arisings on a construction site. This tool tries to link the construction process and the waste hierarchy. That is reducing waste on a construction site rather than landfilling it. Three applications of the SMARTWaste software will be discussed using case studies from three different types of construction. An evaluation of these case studies shows that, by implementing a waste minimisation scheme on-site, you can improve material recovery for reuse. Also, by using the waste arisings as a benchmark you can reduce your waste arisings on future sites. Application of SMARTWaste or a similar waste minimisation tool on a wider basis could reduce waste arisings and could result in a built environment that consumed less natural resources and energy, and also produced less pollution and waste. Such a built environment would be environmentally and socially more responsive and responsible.     

COMPARISON OF TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS IN TISSUE OF COMMON CARP AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MONITORING1

Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) collected from four sites in the Red River of the North in 1994 were analyzed for arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), selenium (So), and zinc (Zn). Concentrations differed among liver, muscle, and whole body. Generally, trace element concentrations were the greatest in livers while concentrations in whole bodies were greater than those in muscle for Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn, and concentrations in muscle were similar to whole body for As and Se. Concentrations of Cr were lower in liver than either muscle or whole body. Correlations between liver and whole body concentrations were stronger than those between liver and muscle concentrations, but the strongest correlations were between muscle and whole body concentrations. Examination of tissue concentrations by collection sites suggested that, for a general survey, the whole body may be the most effective matrix to analyze.