Is the god of diamonds alone? The role of institutions in artisanal mining in forest landscapes,Congo Basin

This paper examines the institutional framework of artisanal mining in the forests of the Sangha Tri-National Landscape (TNS) in the Congo Basin. Artisanal miners in Cameroon and the Central African Republic (CAR) commonly make sacrifices to their god of diamonds, to improve fortunes. This study looks into ‘the other forces’; institutions that play a role in shaping the sector and its outcomes. These institutions comprise formal and informal institutions at a local, national, regional and international level. Although artisanal miners in TNS benefit by gaining cash income, this activity also carries risks as income is highly disparate and environmental impacts in this priority forest conservation area are expected to increase due to the growing competition over land use. It was concluded from a literature review, interviews and site visits that informal arrangements dominate the sector, especially in Cameroon, leading to poor relations between officials and miners and meaning that miners have few rights and no voice. The current institutional setup is inadequate to deal with current and anticipated social and environmental issues. Future interventions need to take into account the existing (local) types of organization, vulnerable groups, the interests of multiple actors and the fact that most miners are experienced but combine mining with other activities, such as agriculture, fishing and harvesting forest products. African initiatives concerning ASM offer opportunities to Cameroon and CAR to collaborate with other countries to combat similar issues. A regional integrated approach of both the forest and mining sector would be especially relevant for trans-boundary agreements, such as concerning the TNS, to reinforce positive outcomes for the landscape and the area's population.     

Safeguarding livelihoods or exacerbating poverty? Artisanal mining and formalization in West Africa

In recent years, policy mechanisms to support a formalized artisanal and small‐scale mining (ASM) sector in sub‐Saharan Africa have gained increasing currency. Proponents of formalization argue that most social and environmental problems associated with the sector stem from the fact that ASM is predominantly unregulated and operates outside the legal sphere. This paper critically examines recent efforts to formalize artisanal and small‐scale mining in West Africa, drawing upon recent fieldwork carried out in Sierra Leone, Ghana and Mali. In exploring the sector's livelihood dimensions, the analysis suggests that bringing unregulated, informal mining activities into the legal domain remains a considerable challenge. The paper concludes by confirming the urgent need to refocus formalization strategies on the main livelihood challenges and constraints of small‐scale miners themselves, if poverty is to be alleviated and more benefits are to accrue to depressed communities in mineral‐rich regions.     

Influence of land tenure practices on artisanal mining activity in Ghana

This paper examines the issue of land tenure and how it influences artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) activity in Ghana. Over the past few decades, attempts by governments in sub-Saharan Africa to regulate or formalize ASM as a result of the sector's increasing socio-economic and environmental importance have largely been unsuccessful. Even though mining laws have tended to vest all minerals in the state, increasing evidence suggests that mineral-rich lands for artisanal mining continue to be frequently traded between local landowners and miners or interested groups outside the official legal regime. This development, i.e. land trading for artisanal mining, contributes significantly towards proliferation of illegal ASM activity and hence potentially challenges attempts by governments and development partners to formalise the sector.     

Criminalization of “galamsey” and livelihoods in Ghana: Limits and consequences

The fact that the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector in Ghana is driven largely by poverty means that the sector is a major source of livelihood for people in mining communities across the country. However, given the various social and environmental problems associated with the ASM sector, there is now an emerging consensus that the formalization of the sector would not only allow for these associated problems to be addressed but also ensures that the sector contributes to sustainable development and safeguard the livelihood of local communities. While a large body of extant literature has examined the challenges and opportunities facing the process of formalization, the question of the criminalization of the sector and its consequences for local livelihood has received only limited attention. Drawing from primary data collected during fieldwork in Ghana, this study examined the livelihood implications of the ban on galamsey in the Tarkwa-Nsuaem Municipality in South-Western Ghana from the perspectives of local communities and other key stakeholders. The study reveals that the ban on galamsey has imposed significant socio-economic hardships on the people and appears to be entrenching poverty rather than sustainable development. The study considers the theoretical and practical implications of the findings for sustainable livelihood enhancement in developing countries.     

Towards sustainable community‐based natural resource management in the indigenous Meqmegi community in Taiwan: Rethinking impacts of local participation

This paper examines approaches for local resident participation in community‐based natural resource management (CBNRM); focusing particularly on the potential impacts that local participation imposes on the natural environment. This study used qualitative methods to collect data, and selected Meqmegi, an indigenous community in Taiwan, as a case study. The findings indicate that many opportunities can be created that stimulate a community to participate in natural resource management; moreover, residents are prone to use their own ways to participate. Therefore, although local participation is praised for its people‐oriented way of natural resource management, impacts from the participation process will ultimately be imposed on the environment. We suggest that more consideration be given to the environmental conditions during the process of local participation via CBNRM to make sure that impacts on the environment are positive, and lead to a truly sustainable future.     

How has a shortage of census and geological information impeded the regularization of artisanal and small‐scale mining?

There is growing consensus that a combination of laissez‐faire policies, ad hoc regulation and debilitating support services has perpetuated socio‐economic and environmental deterioration in the artisanal and small‐scale mining (ASM) industry. However, a lack of anthropological and geological information on ASM prevents many governments both from improving the policy environment of the industry, and from providing more robust extension services to its operators. This article aims to examine more precisely how a deficiency of baseline census and geological data has inhibited industry formalization and undermined many of the measures implemented to address pressing problems at ASM sites. Specifically, it is argued that insufficient knowledge of artisanal mining populations — including their demographic structure — and of areas suitable for ASM activities affects the ability of a government to regularize, as well as to improve, the organization of this largely informal sector of industry. Case studies of Ghana and Zimbabwe are used to illustrate how the undertaking of low‐budget projects in areas of geological prospecting and population analysis could improve the efficiency of ASM assistance.     

Strengthening artisanal mining research and policy through baseline census activities

Over the past 10–15 years, several governments have implemented an array of technology, support‐related, sustainable livelihoods (SL) and poverty‐reduction projects for artisanal and small‐scale mining (ASM). In the majority of cases, however, these interventions have failed to facilitate improvements in the industry's productivity and raise the living standards of the sector's subsistence operators. This article argues that a poor understanding of the demographics of target populations has precipitated these outcomes. In order to strengthen policy and assistance in the sector, governments must determine, with greater precision, the number of people operating in ASM regions, their origins and ethnic backgrounds, ages, and educational levels. This can be achieved by carrying out basic and localized census work before promoting ambitious sector‐specific projects aimed at improving working conditions in the industry.     

Mercury: An agent of poverty in Ghana's small-scale gold-mining sector?

There is consensus worldwide that the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector is comprised of individuals who are trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty, lacking the necessary financial and technological means to improve their standards of living. Minimal work, however, has been undertaken to identify the very factors behind miners’ plight, which inevitably vary from country to country. This paper uses a case study of Ghana to argue that an increased dependence upon mercury for amalgamation in artisanal gold-mining communities is one such—albeit overlooked—“agent of poverty”. There is mounting empirical evidence which suggests that dealings with the monoponistic middlemen who supply mercury, purchases of costly medicines to remedy ailments caused by mercury poisoning, and a lack of appropriate safeguards and alternatives to amalgamation, are preventing gold miners from improving their practices and livelihoods. The solution to the problem lies in breaking this cycle of dependency, which can be achieved by providing miners with robust support services, mercury-free technologies and education.     

How you start matters: A comparison of Gold Fields' Tarkwa and Damang Mines and their divergent relationships with local small-scale miners in Ghana

This paper argues that actions of large-scale mining companies at the early stages of a mining project establish a legacy which sets the tone for that mine's long-term relationship with the local artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) stakeholders. This paper compares the experiences of Gold Fields' Tarkwa and Damang mines and the divergent histories of each of these mines' relationship with local small-scale mining stakeholders. Circumstances at Damang during the discovery and early development of the project drove a rift between the mine and the ASM community. As the mine developed, a chain of ASM engagement strategies were enacted in an attempted to repair the relationship but which has never able to regain sufficient trust between the mine and ASM stakeholders. At the nearby Tarkwa mine, ASM confrontations have been much easier to manage. Despite early disagreements at Tarkwa, a relationship characterized by greater trust between the mine and ASM communities was established early and therefore ASM engagement strategies have been simpler and more effective. This paper will conclude that establishing and maintaining a positive mine legacy as early as the exploration phase of a mining project is critical to maintaining a positive, trust-based relationship between LSM companies and their local ASM stakeholders over the life of a mine.     

Understanding climate,adapting to change: indigenous cultural values and climate change impacts in North Queensland

Many authors have suggested that Indigenous communities are especially vulnerable to the direct and indirect impacts of climate change, yet there remains a paucity of fine-grained geographic data on the particular impacts of climate change on specific places and on local communities, especially Australian Indigenous communities. While there are some recent studies being undertaken with Australia's Torres Strait Island people, our research takes up the issues of vulnerability and resilience with two Indigenous communities from different environments on the mainland in North Queensland. They are the Aboriginal peoples of the rainforest and reef environments of the Wet Tropics and the Aboriginal people of the discontiguous rainforest, grasslands, dry forests and marine environments of Cape York. The results demonstrate variability in their understandings of climate change and in their capacities to anticipate and manage its impacts, while at the same time illustrating some common held themes about environmental and cultural values, observed environmental change, attributions of cause and effect, and of climate in general.     

Off-site consequences: Life after risk management plans,Part I—public response

Many environmental and facility managers view the submittal and public availability of their facilities' risk management plans (RMPs) as discrete events and give little thought about how RMP information may influence their future relations with plant communities and other stakeholders. In fact, the public availability of RMPs will have some significant and lasting consequences that have the potential to alter RMP sources' relations with a wide variety of stakeholders. This article is the first of two installments that will explore some of the likely outcomes of the risk management program, with a particular emphasis on those consequences tied to the public availability of the RMPs themselves. This installment considers likely responses at the community level and from both national and local environmental advocacy groups. The second installment will look at likely responses to RMP information in land use planning, by the financial services sector, by regulatory agencies, and by the senior management of RMP sources' owners and operators. Although the responses of individual communities to RMPs will be governed by a number of variables, including the nature of existing relations with individual RMP sources, proximity (or perceived proximity) of residences or other public and environmental receptors to RMP sources, and stakeholders' attitudes toward chemicals and chemical use, there are certain potential responses that managers should look for in their communities. These RMP-driven responses and expectations are discussed in the first installment of this article.© 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Environmental and socioeconomic impacts of cobblestone quarries in Addis Ababa and implication for resource use efficiency,environmental quality,and sustainability of land after‐use

The extraction of construction material in Addis Ababa has been a source of public conflict for many years, especially in terms of quarry operation, displacement of people, rehabilitation of quarry sites, and land after‐use. One of the main reasons for the conflict has been the extraction sector's inability to adjust to the existing laws. This paper reports the findings of a study undertaken to assess the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of quarry mining in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and it prescribes interventions that can assist in mitigating the negative impacts of mining. Marked operational, environmental, and socioeconomic impacts have occurred as a result of cobblestone quarrying in Addis Ababa. Improvements in the mitigation of these impacts can be achieved if quarrying operations are planned prior to commencement; resource‐efficient and sustainable mining techniques are employed; stakeholder participation is enhanced; the government provides institutional, organizational, and technical support to the operators; regulations are improved and regulatory implementations receive strict follow‐up; and the provision of the Ethiopian constitution's regarding “rights to development” is respected.     

Abandoned artisanal gold mines in the Brazilian Amazon: A legacy of mercury pollution

The modern gold rush in the Brazilian Amazon attracted millions of people to become artisanal miners in order to escape complete social marginalization. The rudimentary nature of artisanal mining activities often generates a legacy of extensive environmental degradation,both during operations and well after mining activities have ceased. One of the most significant environmental impacts is derived from the use of mercury (Hg), which is illegal for use in gold amalgamation in Brazil, but continues to be the preferred method employed by artisanal gold miners. The general population is unaware of the capricious nature of mercury and artisanal mining activities. Moreover, individuals in positions of political or economic infiuence tend to be negatively biased towards artisanal mining and government policies do not effectively address the realities of these activities. Affected communities have consequently been ignored,and mistrust towards outside parties is high. Not surprisingly, miners are suspicious of and unlikely to employ externally derived solutions to reduce mercury emissions. This article reviews the use of mercury in artisanal mining and highlights the role miners, governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played in communicating facts, perpetuating myths and deriving solutions for mercury pollution. This article also raises some key concerns that must be addressed to understand the behaviour of mercury in the environment and identifies solutions for problems facing communities where artisanal gold mining operations have been abandoned.     

Understanding local community attitudes toward industrial development in the Great Barrier Reef region World Heritage Area: are environmental impacts perceived to overshadow economic benefits?

Conflicts between industrial development and environmental conservation can be particularly acute when such development occurs in the vicinity of World Heritage sites. A key example is the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) in northeastern Australia, where a 2012 review by the World Heritage Council found that rapid port development inshore of the coral reef posed significant risks to local marine ecosystems. Such instances pose pressing challenges for decision‐makers seeking to manage World Heritage sites for multiple values and needs, including those of key stakeholder groups, such as local communities. There is increasingly a societal expectation that public decision‐making takes into account local views and priorities, and that companies seek a ‘social license to operate’. This research explored local community attitudes toward port development associated with the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and coal through the GBRWHA. Using data drawn from a survey and interviews, the research examined how a range of geographical factors, including proximity to gas infrastructure and the perceived impacts and risks of development to the local community, economy and environment shape community perceptions of the industry. Findings suggest that local attitudes toward gas and coal terminal development inshore of the GBRWHA are shaped predominantly by community perceptions of environmental impacts and risks associated with such infrastructure, in contrast to a broader public narrative that focuses largely on economic benefits. A complex combination of other factors, including social impacts, personal environmental values, community trust in industry, and equity in decision‐making and distribution of the risks and benefits of industrial development also contribute. Placed in a broader, global context, the findings have important implications for public decision‐making processes in Australia and elsewhere as they suggest that, for local communities, the perceived impacts of gas development on the environment may overshadow the benefits of industry.     

Partnerships for Local Environmental Action: Observations on the First Two Years of Rural Action for the Environment

Rural Action for the Environment is a key element of the UK Government's 'Action for the Countryside' initiative. It has two main elements: the provision of advice, training, information and grants to local communities; and the formation of county based networks of environmental organizations to provide the necessary support infrastructure to local projects. This paper suggests that Rural Action is a laudable attempt to move towards a more 'enabling' style of operation which may ultimately result in a significant increase in the level of interest and involvement in environmental action. However, it has also highlighted a number of important problems which are likely to afflict all future attempts to encourage local communities to formulate and carry out sustainable environmental improvements in their areas. Particular difficulties result from the need to reconcile the multiple and possibly contradictory objectives of different agencies, the problems of engaging the interest of local people, the time and other resource constraints faced by those who seek to implement such initiatives and the political imperative to achieve action on the ground as rapidly as possible. Each of these issues will need to be addressed by future schemes if widespread involvement in locally determined environmental action is to be secured.     

Environment and development in the Republic of the Marshall Islands: Linking climate change with sustainable fisheries development

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a major custodian of one of the ocean's major natural resources: tuna. The commercial tuna fisheries sector is the most important economic sector in the RMI and is thus a substantial contributor to this tiny island nation's GDP. Tuna catch and its associated revenues has fluctuated in line with climatic events such as the El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and, in the last decade, national fisheries development policies have begun to capitalize on the positive effects that ENSO warm events have had on the tuna populations. However, global warming is expected to have a significant impact on ENSO, and not necessarily in positive ways. This paper will focus on the relationship between environment and economic development in the RMI fisheries sector. In particular, the linkages between global warming and its effects on the tuna fisheries sector must be better understood and uncertainties accounted for so that impacts are appropriately addressed and integrated into sustainable fisheries development policies. Conclusions reached are that new fisheries development strategies that emphasize environmental‐based planning are required. The emerging ecosystem‐based approach to fisheries management is a start, as are the various international initiatives in furthering our understanding of the linkages between climate and ocean systems currently underway.     

Precarious work or sustainable livelihoods? Aligning Prestea's Programme with the development dialogue on artisanal and small‐scale mining

Alternative livelihoods programmes (ALPs) are extensively executed in mining communities, often as models of development dialogue on artisanal and small‐scale mining (ASM). This paper assesses whether Prestea's ALP aligns with the development dialogue on artisanal mining. The conceptual design of ALP in Ghana's Prestea is based on the notions of substitution, homogenous community, and impact scalability. This paper argues that the Prestea ALP is not aligned with the development dialogue on artisanal mining, and therefore it is difficult to understand the role and function of environmentally‐damaging behaviours within livelihood strategies. The paper contends that it would be appropriate to concentrate on improving the existing artisanal miners’ operation of those most susceptible to resource access restrictions. Further, it may be more prudent to utilize livelihood‐centered interventions that create strong connections with sustainable development as a way of creating regular community engagements. Additionally, this paper argues that the term for the intervention programme on artisanal mining should be replaced with the broader term ‘livelihood‐centered intervention’. The replacement of the term ‘ALP’ avoids the tacit belief that ALP can adequately replace artisanal mining operations. Livelihood‐centered intervention should not necessarily utilize alternative livelihoods as direct behavioural change instruments.     

A framework for multi-level stakeholder studies in response to global change

Global change, as a process of large-scale environmental effects, and globalisation, as a change in peoples' livelihoods and consumption patterns, will impact communities increasingly in the years to come. Given these pressures, stakeholder consultations and broader stakeholder-centred activities that look at how people are affected by and able to adapt to change become crucial. Stakeholder consultations have been advanced, for instance, in Integrated Assessment activities which include several disciplines and stakeholder participation. Yet, thus far, such consultations have typically taken the form of direct group discussions, in which the differences in the way scientists and other stakeholders communicate are often underestimated. This paper suggests that there is a need to go beyond stakeholder dialogue to focus on the complex institutional factors that shape stakeholders' understandings and actions on multiple levels. Stakeholder studies would thus include not only direct consultation but also a social analysis of the vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities of regional and local institutions and livelihoods.     

A comparative analysis of the psychosocial impacts of waste disposal facilities

This paper reports the results of a comparative analysis of the psychosocial impacts of municipal solid waste disposal facilities (both landfills and incinerators) in six communities in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia, Canada. Telephone surveys were administered to random samples of residents living around each facility between 1990 and 1995 (total n=1203). The results of logistic regression analyses show that type of facility was the strongest predictor of residents' awareness, concern, and actions taken in response to site concerns. Essentially, residents living in close proximity to a landfill had a higher probability of reporting awareness, concern or actions than residents living around an incinerator site. There was little evidence of differences in reactions between Ontario and British Columbia (BC) residents, despite variations in provincial policies on waste disposal. The effects of other predictors, with the exception of involvement in the local community, were not consistent, supporting previous findings that the determinants of facility impacts are outcome‐specific. It is essential that environmental managers take this constellation of factors into account in the operation of existing, or siting of new, facilities.     

Risk attitudes and mitigation among gold miners and others in the Suriname rainforest

This article analyses the question: do attitudes towards risk influence participation in small‐scale gold mining, a hazardous activity that generates uncertain income? This question is examined by measuring and comparing the risk attitudes of gold miners and non‐mining community members in the rainforest of Suriname, South America. The author presents a multivariate model to predict the duration of work in mining areas as a function of risk tolerance, age, education, and household demographics. The results suggest that a greater tolerance to risk increases the duration of a person's mining career. However, attitudes explain only a fraction of the variation in occupational choices. Qualitative data suggest that these choices are primarily shaped by local barriers to human capital development and by national economic volatility. Given their marginal position in society and the multitude of mining risk mitigation strategies, it is questionable whether gold mining exposes Suriname forest peoples to greater risks than other subsistence alternatives. The author argues that sensitivity to local historical and cultural conditions would improve the efficiency of policies aimed at developing a more sustainable mining industry. By zooming in on the daily lives of miners, anthropology can complement macro‐scale analyses and contribute to policy interventions in the small‐scale mining sector.