Experiences in the water resources development and management for sustainable use in Zimbabwe

Fresh water has become a very topical, emotive and sensitive issue in Zimbabwe following the recent continued droughts in conjunction with lack of finance to expand water resources development. Heated debates have arisen over the availability, allocation, distribution, disbursement and conservation of this precious resource. A great deal of inefficiency has also resulted from Government Ministries or Departments playing all the roles, from policymaking to supply operations. Government authorities often make the mistake of controlling day-to-day management of water and sewage services. In fact, greater accountability results when Government authorities focus on policymaking, establishing regulatory regimes that provide incentives for achieving goals and sanctions for serious failures, while giving sufficient autonomy to entities responsible for investment and operations to control outcomes. It is becoming more and more evident throughout the world that provision of water, as opposed to the planning and allocation of the water resource, should be handled by commercial undertakers. Indeed, Zimbabwe and its neighbours are currently involved with changing the status of their water departments to corporate entities; Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia have already commercialised or are currently in the process of commercialising their freshwater supply services.     

Achieving SDG 6: water resources sustainability in Caribbean Small Island Developing States through improved water governance

Scientific findings confirm that Small Island Developing States (SIDS) in the Caribbean are experiencing droughts and sea level rises that are contributing to saline intrusion of underground aquifers and surface water sources. This paper, using Trinidad as a case study, analyses water governance challenges in meeting Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, which addresses the sustainability of water resources. Interviews were conducted with professionals from multi‐disciplinary backgrounds. Also, data provided by the water agency were analysed to evaluate water governance practices. The main contribution of this paper is the generation of a blend of policies, good practices and tools to confront growing threats to water security and to attain sustainable development in Caribbean SIDS in an era of climate change and increasing non‐climatic stressors. The paper concludes that economic, environmental and human resources, reformed administrative and legislative systems, and technological tools are fundamental to achieving good water governance. Moreover, an array of complementary policies and technologies is needed to resolve water governance issues. However, political will to implement sustainable water resources management is the greatest challenge in attaining SDG 6.     

Application of a Physical Input–Output Table to Evaluate the Development and Sustainability of Continental Water Resources in Spain

Continental waters are complex resources in terms of a measurable physical quantity, and measuring them requires a good knowledge of total water availability. In this research, an accounting physical input–output table (PIOT) was applied to evaluate total water resources and gross annual availabilities at each stage of the natural-artificial water cycle. These stages are considered subsystems of a continental water resource system describing water transfers for an average year within 13 administrative basins of Spain. Water transfers between various subsystems are characterized by internal flows decreasing the water resource availabilities. The PIOT analysis establishes these internal flows, and the origins and final uses of the total resources for each subsystem. The input-output balance registered an unsustainable negative net accumulation in eight water basins. The PIOT analysis also allowed the calculation of significant indicators such as water resource developments (RDI) and their sustainable use (SUI). RDI and SUI demonstrate that groundwater is a critical resource affecting the environment (e.g., wetlands in the upper Guadiana) and the water supply (e.g., irrigation in the Segura basin). The results of this model suggest that above-/below-ground hydrological links are important when decisions have to be made in order to provide a satisfactory supply of water in Spain. The model integrates the different water basins under territorial criteria, and therefore it may be useful for the Spanish National Hydrological Plan.     

A GROUND WATER RESOURCES STUDY OF A PACIFIC OCEAN ATOLL - TARAWA,GILBERT ISLANDS1

ABSTRACT: The geology and fresh ground water lens development in a typical Pacific atoll are described together with a method for hydrogeological investigation. The fresh water resources of such lenses are investigated using Tarawa as an example. It is shown that simple steady state solutions cannot be realistically applied, and that despite the paucity of hydrogeological data, which is considered typical of such islands, practical nonsteady state solutions allow resource assessments. The susceptability of lens resources to drought conditions is demonstrated.     

The future of water in Australia: The potential effects of climate change and ozone depletion on Australian water quality,quantity and treatability

Water is a resource that is essential for all life on Earth. An exponentially growing human population, in addition to unprecedented industrial and technological development, threaten the availability and quality of this resource. Climate change and ozone depletion are two major environmental problems facing mankind today. These problems have the potential to further strain currently available freshwater resources. Recent research has shown that climate change and ozone depletion are linked phenomena and their interaction exacerbates their impact. Changes in precipitation, surface runoff, solar UV radiation, temperatures, and evaporation are some of the predicted outcomes of climate change and ozone depletion. They influence the biogeochemical cycles and aquatic ecosystems in lakes and rivers, and alter the character of natural organic matter (NOM) and, consequently, they have the potential to affect the quality, quantity and treatability of our water resources. Given these uncertainties, and the need to mitigate the consequences of climate change and ozone depletion, the issues of changing water quality, quantity and treatability cannot be ignored by Australian governments and water utilities.     

Water Resource Protection in Taiwan: An Evaluation of the Taipei Water Management Commission

/ This study evaluates the institutional capacity and performance of the Taipei Water Management Commission. The commission, which manages the Taipei Water Special Area-one of 95 such areas in Taiwan and the only one managed by a supervisory agency-has established a record of water conservation that suggests its utility as a model for managing other protected water resources areas in Taiwan. However, its present institutional structure limits its ability deliver on its mandate. The study identifies a number of problems related to the commission's current institutional structure that need to be addressed if the commission is to serve as a viable model for managing other protected water resource areas in Taiwan.KEY WORDS: Water resources management; Commissions; Institutional capacity; Taiwan     

DETERMINING MINIMUM FLOWS AND LEVELS: THE FLORIDA EXPERIENCE1

ABSTRACT: Florida water resources are among the most abundant in the United States, with Florida receiving the second‐highest mean annual rainfall of all states. However, water supply issues have troubled the state due to the highly variable spatial and temporal distributions of water supply and demand, and they are aggravated by the population's preference for settling in coastal regions where freshwater resources are scarce. Historically, the competing issues of water resource development and natural systems protection have placed water management agencies and local governments at odds. In 1997, the Florida Legislature enacted several major changes to Florida water law in an attempt to improve water resource planning and protection. This paper briefly reviews the history of water management in Florida with an emphasis on decisions culminating in the 1997 legislation, which requires the development of minimum flows and levels. Also examined is the impact of the 1997 law on water management. Efforts made to comply with legislative mandates are summarized; these include, to date, establishment of minimum flows and levels on 209 water bodies and budgeting in excess of $1.4 billion for water resource development projects.     

Landowner Motivations for Civic Engagement in Water Resource Protection

Scholars and water resource professionals recognize citizens must get involved in water resource issues to protect water resources. Yet questions persist on how to motivate community members to get and stay civically involved in nonpoint source pollution issues, given that problems are often ill‐defined. To be successful, interventions intended to engage individuals in collective action must be based on an understanding of the determinants of public‐sphere behavior. The purpose of this study is to explore the psycho‐social factors which influence landowner civic engagement in water resource protection. Data were collected using a self‐administered mail survey of landowners in the Cannon River Watershed and analyzed using structural equation modeling. Study findings suggest landowners are more likely to be civically engaged in water resource issues if they feel a personal obligation to take civic action and perceive they have the ability to protect water resources. Landowners who believe water resource protection is a local responsibility, perceive important others expect them to protect water resources, and believe they have the ability to protect water resources are more likely to feel a sense of obligation to take civic action. A combination of strategies including civic engagement programs addressing barriers to landowner engagement will be most effective for promoting civic engagement in water resource protection.     

Water Resources Development in Small Islands Perspectives and Needs*

The paper reviews the special problems of small islands in the field of water resources development. The mode of occurrence of surface and groundwater resources in the smaller Caribbean Islands is described along with the problems which arise from unfavourable hydrological conditions. A brief survey is given of the various types of water supply systems which have been developed to meet the requirements of the resident population and the tourist sector of the islands. Institutional deficiencies are discussed as they relate to the problems being experienced in the management of public water supply agencies and the conservation of water resources.     

China's water scarcity

China has been facing increasingly severe water scarcity, especially in the northern part of the country. China's water scarcity is characterized by insufficient local water resources as well as reduced water quality due to increasing pollution, both of which have caused serious impacts on society and the environment. Three factors contribute to China's water scarcity: uneven spatial distribution of water resources; rapid economic development and urbanization with a large and growing population; and poor water resource management. While it is nearly impossible to adjust the first two factors, improving water resource management represents a cost-effective option that can alleviate China's vulnerability to the issue. Improving water resource management is a long-term task requiring a holistic approach with constant effort. Water right institutions, market-based approaches, and capacity building should be the government's top priority to address the water scarcity issue.     

生态文明背景下自然资源治理体系的框架设计

长期相对滞后的自然资源治理体系,是造成我国资源环境问题的主要原因之一。目前生态文明建设再次对我国自然资源治理体系提出了新的要求。本文按照生态文明的规范内涵,揭示了生态文明建设与自然资源治理体系建设间的内在联系和对治理体系的现实需要。在对已有自然资源治理体系的相关研究进行梳理的基础上,揭示了我国现行自然资源治理体系中存在的主要问题。本文旨在通过设计资源治理的框架设计填补这些现实需要与主要问题。按照将自然资源系统嵌入动态社会经济-生态系统并纳入相互影响与关联的思路,本文从自然系统与社会经济系统互动、科学的评估体系与信息传递,多主体参与和多中心治理途径以及制度保障等方面设计了有机自然资源治理体系框架的核心内容与结构。     

LEGAL AND POLICY ASPECTS OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT1

Deep within the earth there exist immense reservoirs of energy in the form of heat-commonly referred to as geothermal resources. Unfortunately, most of these resources are at such depths that it is unlikely they will be recoverable in the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, the lure of seemingly inexhaustible amounts of relatively clean energy continues to hold a fascination for man. In certain limited situations man has already been able to tap these reservoirs and harness the energy to his own uses. More of this activity can be expected in the future. While geothermal energy will chiefly be used to produce electric power, persons responsible for water resources management must concern themselves with geothermal resources for water, and water law concepts will continue to play an important role in the development of this resource.     

试析《水法》下的水资源统一管理

水是关系社会可持续发展的重要资源,但是我国水管理的弊端造成水资源状况不容乐观。针对这一情况,2002年《水法》的修改重点之一是加强了水资源统一管理。本文从统一管理的必要性出发,分析了《水法》有关水资源统一管理的规定,并指出了有待完善之处。     

Water rights and legal pluralism: four contexts for negotiation

Increasing water scarcity is increasing pressure on water management institutions, particularly in the area of water rights. A common response is to formalise water tenure, one of several options for securing access and resolving conflicts concerning water allocation. This article looks at four contexts where negotiation, self-governance and concepts of legal pluralism may help improve water resource management. Existing users and potential new users need to negotiate before water resources are developed. Users can participate in forums with authority to solve basin management problems through self-governance. Negotiated water transfers offer an alternative to water acquisition by expropriation.     

Approaches to integrated water resource development and management

In southern Africa institutional capacity in the water sector is severely limited by diminishing regular budget and external assistance allocations. The result has been an overall decline in operational water resource management. This is ironic given the international community's current concern with 'integrated' or 'comprehensive' water resources management. Often, so-called integrated attempts at river basin planning and development have been conceived within the framework of a river basin authority or regional master plans. Such large-scale attempts have not necessarily been compatible either with the national capacity in water resources management or the existing institutional and legislative frameworks. In many cases the actual integration of a basin's physical resources and social, economic and environmental demands is poorly executed. To examine a way forward in resolving what is clearly an unsustainable state of affairs, a diagnostic study of the Kafue Basin, Zambia, was carried out in order to identify a set of water resource management options for a basin currently under stress. A physical framework for the Kafue Basin was established and principal subcatchments and hydro-geological subsystems identified. Current water resource issues in the basin are discussed and a multiobjective approach is proposed to allow intersectoral competition for the basin's limited water resources to be reconciled.     

Building resilience to drought in desertification-prone savannas in Sub-Saharan Africa: The water perspective

Securing sustainable livelihood conditions and reducing the risk of outmigration in savanna ecosystems hosted in the tropical semiarid regions is of fundamental importance for the future of humanity in general. Although precipitation in tropical drylands, or savannas, is generally more significant than one might expect, these regions are subject to considerable rainfall variability which causes frequent periods of water deficiency. This paper addresses the twin problems of “drought and desertification” from a water perspective, focusing on the soil moisture (green water) and plant water uptake deficiencies. It makes a clear distinction between long‐term climate change, meteorological drought, and agricultural droughts and dry spells caused by rainfall variability and land degradation. It then formulates recommendations to better cope with and to build resilience to droughts and dry spells. Coping with desertification requires a new conceptual framework based on green‐blue water resources to identify hydrological opportunities in a sea of constraints. This paper proposes an integrated land/water approach to desertification where ecosystem management supports agricultural development to build social‐ecological resilience to droughts and dry spells. This approach is based on the premise that to combat desertification, focus should shift from reducing trends of land degradation in agricultural systems to water resource management in savannas and to landscape‐wide ecosystem management.     

PLANNERS AS A PUBLIC IN WATER RESOURCES PUBLIC PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS1

This paper suggests a number of benefits in identifying urban and regional planners as a public in public participation programs of water resources planning studies. A perspective on public participation is presented. Recent trends and developing concepts are identified: emphasis on the need to coordinate urban and regional planning activities with water resources planning, increasing system complexity, the goals and objectives orientation of planning, planning for multi-objectives, the evaluation of a broader range of alternatives, and the consideration of water alternatives as only one set of measures to further society's aspirations. One way to assist in capitalizing on these trends is to seek out participation of those in other planning efforts who are involved in planning but on a different level. Because of their intimate knowledge of an areas history, growth and development, political climate, local perceptions of needs and desires, and major problems and issues they are able to contribute a great deal of insight in making the water resources planning effort more responsive at the local level. The paper describes one of the first major efforts at working-level public-planner contact which was carried out as part of the Susquehanna River Basin Study. A regional survey team comprised of an engineer and an economist from a federal agency and a state water resources planner met informally with planners, city managers, and local planning commissions to discuss issues related to water resources and the growth and development of local areas. This effort while only part of the overall public participation program yielded a number of benefits and if expanded and refined would be a very useful experience in other studies.     

THE CONTINUING EVOLUTION OF AN AUSTRALIAN WATER RESOURCES POLICY1

ABSTRACT: Australia's extremely limited water resources highlight the need for policy guidelines for management. During the 1970s, there was the gradual evolution of a national water resources policy, facilitated by a nationally agreed statement of objectives and culminating in a federal policy statement presented in 1979. However, the Australian constitution gives major responsibility for water resources to the states. Further, the federal policy statement seems to assume that each state has a water resources policy and that it accords with the nationally agreed objectives. This is not the case, and the practical management of Australia's water resources falls short of the principles set out in the policy document. The River Murray, the nation's major water resource, provides ample evidence of this fact. With very limited water resources, Australia urgently needs to reduce the disparity between principle and practice in their management.     

Estimating Current and Future Groundwater Resources of the Maldives

The water resources of the atolls of the Republic of Maldives are under continual threat from climatic and anthropogenic stresses, including land surface pollution, increasing population, drought, and sea‐level rise (SLR). These threats are particularly acute for groundwater resources due to the small land surface area and low elevation of each island. In this study, the groundwater resources, in terms of freshwater lens thickness, total volume of fresh groundwater, and safe yield are estimated for the 52 most populous islands of the Maldives for current conditions and for the year 2030, with the latter accounting for projected SLR and associated shoreline recession. An algebraic model, designed in previous studies to estimate the lens thickness of atoll islands, is expanded in this study to also estimate volume of groundwater. Results indicate that average current lens thickness, groundwater volume, and per capita safe yield are approximately 4.6 m, 1,300 million liters, and 300 l/day, and that these values will decrease by approximately 10, 11, and 34%, respectively, by the year 2030. Based on results, it is demonstrated that groundwater, in terms of quantity, is a viable source of water for the islands of the Maldives both now and in coming decades, particularly for islands with large surface area and low population. Study results can provide water resource managers and government officials with valuable data for consideration in water security measures.     

Framework for Measuring Sustainable Development in Catchment Systems

Integrated catchment management represents an approach to managing the resources of a catchment by integrating environmental, economic, and social issues. It is aimed at deriving sustainable benefits for future generations, while protecting natural resources, particularly water, and minimizing possible adverse social, economic, and environmental consequences. Indicators of sustainable development, which summarize information for use in decision-making, are invaluable when trying to assess the diverse, interacting components of catchment processes and resource management actions. The Driving-Forces–Pressure–State–Impact–Response (DPSIR) indicator framework is useful for identifying and developing indicators of sustainable development for catchment management. Driving forces have been identified as the natural conditions occurring in a catchment and the level of development and economic activity. Pressures include the natural and anthropogenic supply of water, water demand, and water pollution. State indicators can be split into those of quantity and those of quality. Impacts include those that affect the ecosystems directly and those that impact the use value of the resource. It core indicators are identified within each of the categories given in the framework, most major catchment-based management issues can be evaluated. This framework is applied to identify key issues in catchment management in South Africa, and develop a set of indicators for evaluating catchments throughout the country.