WATER RIGHTS,ALLOCATION, AND CONFLICTS IN THE TONGUE RIVER BASIN,SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA1

ABSTRACT: Southeastern Montana's Tongue River basin is experienceing rapid development of its extensive coal deposits which is significantly impacting the basin's hydrologic systems. Energy development projects may require more water than is available and threatens to dewater the river, degrade water quality, and endanger aquatic econosystems. The Montana Water Use Act promised to end the uncertainty which has existed in Montana water law. However, serious difficulties have been encountered in implementing the law and Tongue River water rights remain in a state of uncertainty. The Tongue River's water was allocated in 1978 but the division of the river's water is meaningless due to Indian lawsuits and lack of an agreement between Montana and Wyoming concerning the Yellowstone River Compact. Thus water which is hydrologically available may not be legally available.     

Monetary assessment of the recreational benefits of improved water quality – description of a new model and a case study

The European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD) has created a demand for comparing the benefits and costs of the remedial measures. A major part of the benefits from improved water quality relate to the increased recreational value. However, there is a lack of easily operative and widely applicable quantitative methods to assess the benefits of improved water quality for recreational use. We present a new model to link physical indicators of water quality, water feasibility indicators for different recreational uses, individuals’ perceptions concerning the current feasibility of water for recreational purposes and monetary measures of water-related recreation benefits. The model has been applied to nine lakes, three rivers and one large coastal area in Finland. In this paper, we present the principles of the method and the results from one case study. In Finland, the method has been applied for the economic analysis required in the WFD.     

ENVIRONMENTAL THRESHOLD FUNCTIONS FOR USER ORIENTED RESOURCE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: Managers of water related outdoor recreation resources want to provide facilities and recreational opportunities of high quality that are attractive to recreationists. The reported research develops a relevant site quality assessment and measurement procedure called environmental threshold modeling. This modeling procedure is based upon the idea that individuals (i.e., recreationists) have specific, identifiable evaluative criteria which can be expressed as a mathematical function of various site characteristics. The function of interest is called a threshold function because it separates acceptable recreational settings from unacceptable settings. Individual specific threshold functions can be easily aggregated to form a population specific threshold function that estimates the proportion of a population that would find the recreational setting acceptable for some specific activity. Presented in this paper are illustrative calibration results based upon survey data collected from recreational canoeists using the Pine River in Michigan's Manistee National Forest.     

RECREATION AT DRINKING WATER RESERVOIRS IN MASSACHUSETTS: A SURVEY OF WATER MANAGERS1

The purpose of this study was to identify attitudes toward the recreational use of drinking water reservoirs in Massachusetts among municipal water supply managers in the state. Compared to the findings of recent studies assessing the attitudes of the general public, water officials were found to advocate highly restrictive views. No officials said that recreation was an insignificant source of water supply pollution; however, opinions were not found to be related to respondents' exposure to the literature on the topic. The majority were not, in fact, familiar with the literature assessing the impact of recreation on water supply reservoirs.     

Evaluating the acceptability of recreation rationing policies used on rivers

Research shows that users and managers have different perceptions of acceptable policies that ration or limit recreational use on rivers. The acceptability of seven rationing policies was evaluated using Thurstone's method of paired comparisons, which provided a rank ordering of advance reservation, lottery, first-come/first-served, merit, priority for first time users, zoning, and price. Chi-squared tests were used to determine if users and managers have significantly different levels of acceptability for the policies. River users and managers were found to be significantly different according to their evaluation of advance reservation, zoning, and merit. The results also indicated that river users collectively divide the policies into three categories corresponding to high, moderate, and low levels of acceptability, while river managers divide the policies into two levels corresponding to acceptable and unacceptable.     

Diffusion of US army chemical weapons disposal technologies: public perception of technology attributes

This study was conducted to identify factors that influence individuals' acceptance of environmental management technologies for cleaning up hazardous materials. The study sample consisted of approximately 2600 residents living within emergency response zones surrounding eight US Army's Chemical Weapons Stockpile sites. The findings suggest that residents perceive clear differences between the desirable characteristics of the two technologies: incineration and neutralization. In a relative comparison, the majority of positive technological attributes were associated with incineration. Positive perceptions toward incineration were associated with individuals who trust the Army, who perceive that the media have made them more trusting of weapons disposal activities, who are ready to participate, and who are male. Unlike incineration, there was insufficient evidence that individual factors influence variations in perceptions toward neutralization. No community factor was related to perceptions toward either incineration or neutralization.     

PUBLIC ATTITUDES IN MASSACHUSETTS TOWARD THE RECREATIONAL USE OF DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY RESERVOIRS1

ABSTRACT: There is considerable controversy inthe Northeast surrounding the extent to whcih public drinking water reservoirs should be used for recreational purposes. This paper reports the results of two integrated studies of (1) recreation users of Quabbin Reservation, the largest inland water source in New England and (2) the general public of Massachusetts. Data were obtained by conducting on-site interviews of Quabbin users and through state-wide telephone interviews of the general public; both studies focused on assessing attitudes toward the recreational use of drinking water reservoirs in Massachusetts. Unlike the findings of a 1969 study conducted by Baumann, results showed that the majority of Massachusetts residents do not favor recreation-prohibiting laws for most activities. Most favored at least moderate use of reservoirs for recreational purposes. In addition, over all views were not as restrictive as present legislation would suggest. Finally, these findings suggest that current recreation-prohibiting laws should be reassessed in light of pugblic opinion which favors the use of these valuable resources.     

WATER-ORIENTED RECREATION IN THE DISTRICT OF MUSKOKA,ONTARIO1

ABSTRACT: In Ontario no major studies have been attempted in the area of water-oriented recreation to guide planned development. To fill this gap a comprehensive investigation was undertaken on a group of lakes in the District of Muskoka, one of the premier tourist regions of the province. This paper presents the results of this study which focusses on the lake environment, recreational activities, attitudes, and perceptions of the cottagers.     

WATER QUALITY PERCEPTION BY USERS: CAN IT SUPPLEMENT OBJECTIVE WATER QUALITY MEASURES?1

ABSTRACT: Personal interviews were conducted with eighty campers in each of three Minnesota state parks to investigate the water quality perception of the recreationist. At the same time, water quality factors were measured or observed as an indication of conditions experienced by the interviewees. Most respondents perceived water pollution strictly on a visual basis. Sewage, public carelessness, industry, and farm fertilizers were “first choice selections” among major causes of water pollution in Minnesota. Seventy percent felt their recreational activities did not contribute to water pollution. Sixty-two percent said their life had not been affected by water pollution, while over two-thirds of the remaining thirty-eight percent listed curtailment of recreation as the primary result. Many mentioned an algal bloom at one park and the strong odor of rotten fish at a second park. On the basis of the senior author's observations, supported by the measurements taken, it was concluded that thèk were the only major problems in the three parks. Some incipient problems, such as nutrient enrichment and the presence of coliform bacteria, were indicated by the measurements. The type and degree of pollution identified by the recreationist could be important through its influence on user evaluations and space preferences. The establishment of relationships between water quality parameters and the perception of the recreationist will provide the manager with a tool to assist in evaluating participation in water-related outdoor recreation in terms of both user satisfaction and water quality.     

MOBILITY AND AQUATIC TOXICITY OF COPPER IN AN URBAN WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: Abundant use of copper based products has resulted in increased violation of copper water quality criteria in runoff from urban storm water systems. The objectives of this work were to understand the mobility and toxicity of copper in an urban watershed and to apportion the amount of copper entering the freshwater receiving stream from different urban land covers using a mass balance approach. Sixteen rainfall events collected from the University of Connecticut study watershed between August 1998 and September 2000 were analyzed to assess copper flux in an urban storm water system. Mean flow weighted dissolved copper concentrations observed in the study for copper based architectural material runoff, pervious area runoff, impervious area runoff, and in the receiving stream were 1210 ± 840, 9 ± 3, 8 ± 2, and 14 ± 7 μg/L, respectively. Mean dissolved copper concentrations in the receiving stream exceeded Connecticut's water quality criteria. Despite exceeding the dissolved concentration based criteria, cupric ion concentrations at the system outlet remained below 0.05 μg/L for all storms analyzed, and no acute toxicity (using Daphnia pulex as the test organism) was measured in samples collected from the stream.     

THE RESTON (VIRGINIA) LAKE-USE SURVEY: PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS1

ABSTRACT: A public attitude survey was developed by a citizen committee and mailed to all residences (14,747) in the planned, suburban community of Reston, Virginia, which is responsible for maintaining four small, recreational impoundments. Over 18 percent of survey forms were returned, and characteristics of the survey sample suggest that the suite of respondents was representative of the Reston community as a whole. Of those respondents indicating a preferred lake use, 48 percent chose walking or looking as most important; boating as second at 27 percent; and fishing was third, favored by only 8 percent. Citizens feel strongly (94 percent) that the lakes are valuable community assets. Appearance was the characteristic most valued by 62 percent of respondents, and 58 percent considered degradation of water quality either the first or second most important ecological issue affecting local lakes. These findings provide a decisive public mandate for lake management activities related to visual quality. In response to this survey, the Reston Association, a homeowners' organization responsible for the lakes, increased public access of visual enjoyment, intensified litter control, expanded activities in public education on lake management and ecology, and continued a long-term program of water quality monitoring.     

COORDINATION OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE AC A CASE STUDY OF LAKE RESTORATION1

ABSTRACT: The potential for joint public and private action for lake restoration is examined using Lake Apopka, Florida, as a case study. Initial calculations indicate that private incentives alone are inadequate to attract investment in a facility to grow and harvest water hyacinths for conversion to methane gas. However, the private externality of water quality improvement associated with harvesting water hyacinths provides a key linkage between the public's water quality objectives and the private gas producer's actions. In order to establish the potential basis for negotiation, the public's willingness-to-pay for environmental services associated with improved water quality is estimated and compared with the estimated subsidy required to induce private action. A conceptual framework is then presented for coordinating actions between private firms and public water management agencies in order to internalize the private externality of water quality improvement while simultaneously achieving the public and private objectives. Results indicate that the subsidization of water hyacinth production and harvesting compares favorably with alternative means of enhancing the water quality of Lake Apopka.     

TIME LAPSE AERIAL PHOTO ANALYSIS OF THE CONNECTICUT RIVER FROM 1952 TO 19651

Aerial photogrammetric techniques were developed and tested for identifying and classifying river-based recreation sites. A classification system was designed to describe the nature of the land itself, the land use, or the vegetation on the landscape. The Connecticut, a large river running through four states, was examined and classified using the system. Analysis of two sets of aerial photographs taken with a time lapse of ten to thirteen years enabled determination of past use and development trends. A catalogue of maps classifying strips of land adjacent to the river was prepared and reproduced for use by interested planning agencies. Statistics on land area by types for the river as it now is and as it was ten to thirteen years previously have been prepared by towns, counties, and states. The aerial photographs proved invaluable for analyzing the recreational potential of the Connecticut River.     

Freshwater Mussel Population Status and Habitat Quality in the Clinch River,Virginia and Tennessee,USA: A Featured Collection

The Clinch River of southwestern Virginia and northeastern Tennessee is arguably the most important river for freshwater mussel conservation in the United States. This featured collection presents investigations of mussel population status and habitat quality in the Clinch River. Analyses of historic water‐ and sediment‐quality data suggest that water column ammonia and water column and sediment metals, including Cu and Zn, may have contributed historically to declining densities and extirpations of mussels in the river's Virginia sections. These studies also reveal increasing temporal trends for dissolved solids concentrations throughout much of the river's extent. Current mussel abundance patterns do not correspond spatially with physical habitat quality, but they do correspond with specific conductance, dissolved major ions, and water column metals, suggesting these and/or associated constituents as factors contributing to mussel declines. Mussels are sensitive to metals. Native mussels and hatchery‐raised mussels held in cages in situ accumulated metals in their body tissues in river sections where mussels are declining. Organic compound and bed‐sediment contaminant analyses did not reveal spatial correspondences with mussel status metrics, although potentially toxic levels were found. Collectively, these studies identify major ions and metals as water‐ and sediment‐quality concerns for mussel conservation in the Clinch River.     

PREDICTING FECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA LEVELS IN THE CHARLES RIVER,MASSACHUSETTS, USA1

In Massachusetts, the Charles River Watershed Association conducts a regular water quality monitoring and public notification program in the Charles River Basin during the recreational season to inform users of the river's health. This program has relied on laboratory analyses of river samples for fecal coliform bacteria levels, however, results are not available until at least 24 hours after sampling. To avoid the need for laboratory analyses, ordinary least squares (OLS) and logistic regression models were developed to predict fecal coliform bacteria concentrations and the probabilities of exceeding the Massachusetts secondary contact recreation standard for bacteria based on meteorological conditions and streamflow. The OLS models resulted in adjusted R²s ranging from 50 to 60 percent. An uncertainty analysis reveals that of the total variability of fecal coliform bacteria concentrations, 45 percent is explained by the OLS regression model, 15 percent is explained by both measurement and space sampling error, and 40 percent is explained by time sampling error. Higher accuracy in future bacteria forecasting models would likely result from reductions in laboratory measurement errors and improved sampling designs.     

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COMBINED WATER QUALITY INDEX1

ABSTRACT: Use-oriented benefits and treatment costs analysis has been incorporated into a water quality index to show an economically optimized concentration for the treatment of the pollutants and the resulting water quality. This combined water quality index can be used in decisionmaking at the federal and local government levels. Five major pollutants, i.e., coliforms, nitrogen, phosphorus, suspended solids, and detergent, have been considered for the municipal waste water. With each higher level of improvement the treatment costs increase accordingly and the benefits associated with the reuse of this treated waste water will increase too but not for the nutrient removal in agricultural use. The optimal concentration is determined when the marginal costs equal the marginal benefits. The combined water quality index is the combination of the maximum net benefits and the water quality index of the optimized residual concentrations. This water quality index is zero dollars for the Tucson region in this study. The possible reclaimed use of municipal waste water is for agricultural irrigation and recreational lakes for the Tucson region.     

CHANGING THE APPROPRIATION DOCTRINE UNDER THE MODEL STATE WATER CODE1

ABSTRACT: The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Model State Water Code provides suggested statutory language and commentary helpful in guiding western water law reform. Departing from the past preference for stream diversions and consumptive uses, the code is sensitive to the public's interest in maintaining environmental quality. The traditional doctrine protected inefficient uses and in some states hampered transfers. The model code addresses these issues as well as advocating integrated manage. meat and water resource planning. The debate on how to reform water law has already started, and the model code provides material useful in the reform process. Even with the current draft code, a few gaps exist for later resolution.     

USER REACTION TO WILD AND SCENIC RIVER DESIGNATION1

: The National Wild and Scenic River Act of 1968 was designed to protect the nation's unique waterways. This Act, however, has been criticized for negatively affecting areas it was intended to protect. Findings, based on field investigation in the Upper Mississippi River basin suggest that designation may serve as a factor for increasing recreational use levels on the protected rivers. This study discusses the social and recreational consequences of designating rivers and the attitudes of river users regarding designation.     

DAD IS OUT,POP IS IN1

ABSTRACT: Two major challenges face today's water professionals. The first is finding solutions to increasingly complicated water resources problems. The second challenge is nontechnical. It is effective interaction with the public recognizing both the public's increasingly elevated goals relative to water and the public's growing understanding of water science and technology. The traditional DAD approach, that is, decide-announce-defend, is no longer appropriate. The much more progressive, and inclusive POP approach, that is, public owns project, is more likely to be effective given the changing nature of the public's expectations and knowledge. A water resources planning or design effort that fails to include a public interaction program plans to fail. Described in this paper are three suggested objectives of the POP approach, namely demonstrating awareness, gathering supplemental data and information, and building a base of support. Having established specific objectives for a particular water resources project, appropriate public interaction programs and events must be selected, scheduled, and implemented. Many and varied programs and events are described in the paper.     

INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT ON THE TRUCKEE RWER IN NEVADA1

ABSTRACT: The Truckee River is a vitally important water source for eastern California and western Nevada. It runs 100 miles from Lake Tahoe to Pyramid Lake in the Nevada desert and serves urban populations in greater Reno-Sparks and agricultural users in three Nevada counties. In the 1980s and 1990s, a number of state and local groups initiated projects which, taken collectively, have accomplished much to improve watershed management on the Truckee River. However, the task of writing a management plan for the entire watershed has not yet been undertaken. Key players in state, federal and local government agencies have instead chosen to focus specific improvement efforts on more manageable, achievable goals. The projects currently underway include a new agreement on reservoir operation, restoration of high priority sub-watersheds, public education and involvement, water conservation education, and water resource planning for the major urban population centers. The approach which has been adopted on the Truckee River continues to evolve as more and more people take an interest in the river's future. The many positive projects underway on the watershed are evaluated in terms of how well they meet the definition of the ambitious water resources strategy, “integrated watershed management.”