UNITED NATIONS MINERAL EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES: 1960–1976

The United Nations Development Programme plays an important role in strengthening the economies of developing countries through mineral exploration projects, training in geosciences and institution building. This review demonstrates the effectiveness of such activities, both in terms of the economic value of mineral discoveries, and the less tangible, long-term contribution through development of infrastructure and skills, introduction of modern technology, and building up a body of reliable information as a base for future planning of mineral resources development.     

To trade or not to trade: Firm-level analysis of emissions trading in Santiago,Chile

Whether tradable permits are appropriate for use in transition and developing economies—given special social and cultural circumstances, such as the lack of institutions and lack of expertise with market-based policies—is much debated. We conducted interviews and surveyed a sample of firms subject to emissions trading programs in Santiago, Chile, one of the first cities outside the OECD that has implemented such trading. The information gathered allows us to study what factors affect the performance of the trading programs in practice and the challenges and advantages of applying tradable permits in less developed countries.     

The USSR, China, India and the world metals industry to 2010

Remarkable changes are occurring within the economies of the USSR, China and India that are influencing mineral industry activities. These three countries account for a major share of world minerals production and consumption. Their domestic reforms may ultimately have a serious impact on the global mining industry. This paper examines the present status of the Soviet, Chinese and Indian mineral industries, and forecasts conditions to 2010. Long-term characteristics analysed include industrial production, intensity of use, consumption, mine and plant expansion and trade policy. Six metals are highlighted in the study – aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, steel and zinc.     

Harnessing the bonanza: economic liberalization and capacity building in the mineral sector

Over the past decade many developing and transition economies have liberalized their investment regimes for mining and privatized formerly state-owned mineral assets. In response, these economies have witnessed increased foreign investment in exploration and development, growth in the number and diversity of mineral projects, and the opening up of new channels for harnessing increased economic and social benefits from development in the minerals sector. The restructuring of fiscal and regulatory regimes to encourage foreign investment, and the associated influx of mining capital, technology and skills, is transforming traditional relationships between mining firms, local communities and the government. This transformation necessitates a re-evaluation of the most effective policy approaches to capture increased economic and social benefits from mineral production. This article considers effective mechanisms for improving the capacity of developing and transition countries to maximize the economic and social benefits of mineral production. Common challenges associated with minerals economies are reviewed. Consideration is given to the opportunities for harnessing foreign direct investment and the possibilities for creating new partnerships between local communities, industry, government, and multilateral development agencies through social investment projects. The article concludes with a series of recommendations for the design and implementation of policy approaches towards harnessing mineral production for economic and social benefit following the liberalization of investment regimes for mining.     

Informal coal mining in Eastern India: Evidence from the Raniganj Coalbelt

Unauthorized mines are not uncommon in mineral-rich regions of poorer countries, and India is no exception. Whether they constitute merely a law and order problem including safety issues, or there are important social and economic questions involved has yet to be thrashed out. The mining industry, at regional, national and international levels, is ambivalent towards such mining, tending to draw attention away from their informal nature to the size factor.
This article looks into the problem of such informal mining in the light of empirical surveys in eastern Indian collieries. These are called peoples' mines and they serve a significant purpose in local economies. The article's thesis is that peasant communities are trying to claim back a portion of the local resources lost to them through appropriation by mining companies thus re-asserting their traditional rights to local mineral resources. In conclusion, the need for a new moral economy for mining regions is stressed: an economy in which local communities will play a powerful role.     

Adsorption of pesticides onto quartz, calcite, kaolinite, and alpha-alumina

The fate of pesticides in aquifers is influenced by the small but not insignificant adsorption of pesticides to mineral surfaces. Batch experiments with five pesticides and four minerals were conducted to quantify the contributions to adsorption from different mineral surfaces and compare adsorption characteristics of selected pesticides. Investigated mineral phases included quartz, calcite, kaolinite, and alpha-alumina. Selected pesticides comprised atrazine (6-chloro-N2-ethyl-N4-isopropyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine), isoproturon [3-(4-isopropylphenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea)], mecoprop [(RS)-2-(4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy)propionic acid], 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), and bentazone [3-isopropyl-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4-(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide]. Specific surface area and mineral surface charge proved to be important for the adsorption of these pesticides. Detectable adsorption of the anionic pesticides (mecoprop, 2,4-D, and bentazone) was only measured when positive sites were present on the mineral surface. However, when CaCl2 was added as an electrolyte, a detectable adsorption of mecoprop and 2,4-D was also measured on kaolinite (which exhibits a negative surface charge), probably due to formation of Ca-pesticide--surface complexes. Adsorption of the uncharged pesticides (atrazine and isoproturon) was detected only on kaolinite. The lack of adsorption on alpha-alumina indicates that the uncharged pesticides have a greater affinity for the silanol surface sites (=SiOH) than for the aluminol surface sites (=AlOH) in kaolinite. No measurable effect of ionic strength was found for the uncharged pesticides. The results indicate that quartz and calcite play a smaller role than clay minerals.     

The Tucson Mineral Show and the market for collector minerals: The potential for artisanal and small scale miners

Minerals that are sold to collectors are often produced by artisanal and small scale miners in many developing countries. The market for collector minerals is not well understood by most government agencies or NGOs but has a large impact on the artisanal and small miners that have the opportunity to produce these minerals because of the high prices that can be realized. This paper describes the collector mineral market that is held annually in Tucson, Arizona, that analyzes the competitive forces that affect the profitability of the mineral dealers at the show and describes potential methods for artisanal and small scale miners to participate successfully in the show. Most collector minerals produced by artisanal and small-scale miners are valued for their aesthetic qualities instead of mineral content. The 43 shows that operate during the first two weeks in February make up the largest gem and mineral show in the world, the Tucson Show. The Tucson Mineral Show is a subgroup of six shows that specialize primarily in collector minerals.There are several competitive forces at the Tucson Mineral Show that can affect the profit potential of dealers that participate in the show. These forces include potential entrants, suppliers, buyers, substitutes, and rivalry among existing competitors. New entrants face several barriers to entering the market place including the supply side economies of scale, demand side benefits of scale, and capital requirements. Because of these barriers, the cost of doing business and the way that promoters organize and manage the shows, it is difficult for artisanal and small scale miners to enter the show and compete with established dealers. However, with support from entities such as local governments, non-profit organizations, and international organizations the artisanal and small scale miners have the potential to have their minerals sold at the Tucson Shows for prices that would be greater than what can be achieved in the local market. Methods to help the artisanal and small scale miners compete include direct sales or consignments to retail dealers, tailgating, development of sales co-operatives, and the creation of an artisanal/small scale mineral show.     

CHANGING CONCEPTS, APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUES IN MINERAL EXPLORATION

The concepts, approaches and techniques in mineral exploration are changing to meet the demands of society for the discovery of new ore deposits. Recent developments in mineral processing and metal production have made it possible to consider deposits not acceptable before, such as low-grade uranium and copper occurrences, lateritic nickel, iron-rich chromites, lithium in brines, and disseminated beryllium deposits. New concepts on the formation of mineral deposits, as for example the continental drift theory, and new exploration techniques, such as remote sensing, airborne mapping and sampling, electronic data storage and analysis, assure a higher success rate of exploration projects.     

Using the cumulative availability curve to assess the threat of mineral depletion: The case of lithium

The cumulative availability curve shows the quantities of a mineral commodity that can be recovered under current conditions from existing resources at various prices. The future availability of a mineral commodity depends on the shape of its cumulative availability curve (determined by geologic considerations, such as the nature and incidence of the available mineral deposits), the speed at which society moves up the curve (determined by future demand and the extent to which this demand is satisfied by recycling), and shifts in the curve (determined by cost-reducing technological change and other factors). While the shape of the curve for any given mineral commodity may or may not be known, it is knowable since the geologic processes responsible for the curve's shape took place many years ago. In contrast, the factors governing how fast society moves up the curve and how the curve shifts over time are not only unknown but also unknowable.Using lithium as an example, this article shows that knowledge about the shape of the cumulative availability curve can by itself provide useful insights for some mineral commodities regarding the potential future threat of shortages due to depletion. Despite the inherent uncertainties surrounding the future growth in lithium demand as well as the uncertainties regarding the future cost-reducing effects of new production technologies, the shape of the lithium cumulative availability curve indicates that depletion is not likely to pose a serious problem over the rest of this century and well beyond.     

Investigation of declared seating preference and measured cognitive performance in a sunlit room

Current daylighting standards are not sufficient to guarantee a high-quality daylighting experience as they fail to take the behavior of building occupants into consideration. The way that a daylit room is appreciated and used has not been fully explored, especially under sunlighting conditions. This research is the first of its kind to assess how the distance between a subject and a sun patch on the floor is related to a broad range of behavioral responses, including conclusive preference and measured cognitive performance. One hundred subjects participated in a controlled experiment in a work setting. Investigations of the declared preferences of seating area and subjects' cognitive performances indicated that people are not always aware of the environmental factors that influence their behavior. Subjects were generally attracted to sunlight and outdoor views, but they did not necessarily perform best in these preferred areas. Privacy and a sense of control were two hidden factors that greatly affected subjects' decisions and performances. Current daylighting literature and design practice do not pay adequate attention to such factors as sense of visual control or privacy in the design of rooms. On the other hand, the perceived problem of visual glare caused by sunlight penetration did not affect performance as much as subjects believed it would. An additional result suggested that individual behaviors were more affected by environmental elements than were group activities.