Variation in the Composition of Secondary Metabolites in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Flavocetraria</Emphasis> Lichens from Western Siberia

The composition and contents of secondary metabolites in Flavocetraria lichens from Eastern Siberia were analyzed using herbarium specimens. Based on the composition of identified metabolites, three F. cucullata chemotypes and two F. nivalis chemotypes were distinguished. Distinct geographic differentiation between the F. cucullata chemotypes was revealed, probably reflecting their adaptation to environmental conditions. The content of usnic acid in F. cucullata thalli was found to correlate with the latitude of growing region. This may be regarded as evidence for a protective role of this metabolite in lichens growing at high latitudes and exposed to excess solar irradiation during the polar day.     

Differentiation of cryptic wood mice species of the subgenus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sylvaemus</Emphasis> under different ecogeographic conditions in the Northern Caucasus

Based on analysis of the frequencies of nonmetric cranial characters, the ratio of interpopulation and interspecific differences has been studied in populations of two genetically identified cryptic species of wood mice, A. uralensis and A. ponticus, living under different ecological conditions in the Northern Caucasus. Hybridization between these species has not been reported previously, but interspecific phenetic distances indicate that differences between them do not exceed the level characteristic of subspecies, with morphological differentiation between A. uralensis populations of the Central and Western Caucasus being weakly expressed. It is hypothesized that the low level of intra- and interspecific differences is explained by the sympatric and symbiotopic origin of both species in the Western Caucasus. This may account for the retention of their similarity in ecological requirements for the environment and, consequently, only slight morphological disparity in similar biotopes.     

Pollination ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eomecon chionantha</Emphasis> Hance (Papaveraceae), an endemic species in China

Eomecon chionantha Hance, the only species in the genus Eomecon, is an angiosperm species endemic to China. Here we investigated the pollination syndrome, pollinator generalization of E. chionantha. Our results showed that the individual flower longevity of E. chionantha was 3–5 days. The flowering phenology of E. chionantha can be divided into five phases. We found significant differences in the pollination efficiency of the different insects visiting E. chionantha with bees and flies being the most efficient pollinators. This, in addition to floral morphology and phenology, suggests that E. chionantha is generalized on bees and flies and possesses an outcrossing, partially self-compatible and pollinator-dependent breeding system.     

Effect of temperature and precipitation on linear increment of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sphagnum fuscum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">S. magellanicum</Emphasis> in Western Siberia

The linear increment of Sphagnum fuscum and S. magellanicum in ombrotrophic mires of Western Siberia has been measured during two years over a transect about 2500 km long extending from forest–steppe to forest–tundra. Along the latitudinal gradient, the increment of both species has proved to be correlated with annual average air temperature and, in S. magellanicum, also with annual precipitation. The determinants of their growth differ between the southern, central, and northern parts of the study region. At the regional level, the annual and summer precipitation plays a more important role than the average air temperature. The increment of S. fuscum in the southern part is positively correlated with the amount of precipitation and negatively correlated with summer temperature, whereas the situation in the central part is inverse. In S. magellanicum, the linear increment is directly dependent on the annual average temperature and annual and summer precipitation in the south and on the annual and summer precipitation in the north of Western Siberia. The dynamics of linear growth of both species in bog pine forests during the growing season are similar: its rate is the highest in June, when the linear increment of S. fuscum and S. magellanicum amounts to 60 and 85% of the annual total, respectively.     

A global change of specialization and generalization in pollination networks from the plant perspective

A view of pollination systems is that they tend to generalization. Here we show that patterns exist in pollination systems that suggest otherwise. We examine how specialization may be affected by latitude, species richness and plant life-forms in 33 plant-pollinator interaction networks. Connectance increases with latitude (P = 0.040), but specialization at the community level significantly declines with increasing latitude, with the strongest evidence in the Northern Hemisphere (P = 0.001). The relationship between specialization level and connectance is negative (P < 0.001). While plants are more specialized in tropical areas and are more generalized at higher latitudes, specialization level also increases with plant richness (P < 0.001), total species richness (P = 0.041) and network size (P = 0.009). Specialization level of life forms of 1129 species differ substantially (P < 0.001), with herbs showing the highest specialization (74%), and tree species the lowest (62%).     

Genetic diversity and population structure of the invasive plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Solanum rostratum</Emphasis> in China

The level of genetic diversity of 13 Chinese populations of S. rostratum was investigated using nine microsatellite loci. The genetic diversity of the Weisanlu population in Hebei province was the highest and the Hohhot population was the lowest. The genetic differentiation among the populations was highly significant (P < 0.001). A total of 68.54% of the total genetic variation of population was within populations, and the genetic variation between populations accounted for 31.46%. The long-distance dispersal of its seeds by human transport mainly resulted in the rapid dispersal of S. rostratum in China.     

Ecological and faunistic characteristics of the leech fauna in the Bukhtarma Reservoir,Eastern Kazakhstan

The taxonomic diversity of the Hirudinea fauna and its dependence on the ecological conditions in the Bukhtarma Reservoir (Eastern Kazakhstan) have been studied. The morphological analysis has shown that these leeches belong to two orders and three families: Rhynchobdellida (families Glossiphoniidae and Piscicolidae) and Arhynchobdellida (family Erpobdellidae). On the whole, eight leech species from five genera (Alboglossiphonia, Helobdella, Theromyzon, Piscicola, and Erpobdella) have been identified. Among them, there are three glossiphoniid species (A. heteroclite, H. stagnalis, and T. tessulatum), two species of piscicolids (Piscicola geometra and Piscicola sp.), and three species of predatory leeches (E. octoculata, E. vilnensis, and Erpobdella sp.). Possible effects of hydrochemical parameters of the aquatic environment on the species diversity have been analyzed. Correlation has been revealed between the abundance of species and the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment.     

Genetic Differentiation of the Ural Endemic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gypsophila uralensis</Emphasis> (Caryophyllaceae) in Relict Fragments of Its Range in Northwestern European Russia

Molecular genetic methods (AFLP and ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 rDNA analysis) have been used to study the level and structure of genetic diversity in relict populations of the Ural endemic Gypsophila uralensis Less. in the northeast of European Russia. Intraspecific genetic differentiation is most clearly manifested between G. uralensis Less. subsp. pinegensis (Perf.) Kamelin locally endemic to the north of Europe (Arkhangelsk oblast, locus classicus) the population of G. uralensis Less. subsp. uralensis on limestone outcrops along the Shchugor River, the Subpolar Urals. The cluster of Timan populations (on limestone outcrops along the Svetlaya, Pizhma, and Myla rivers) is autonomous and genetically heterogeneous. Genetic distances between model G. uralensis s.l. populations are correlated with geographic distances. The size and abundance of relict populations show a descending gradient in the forest zone, and parameters of their genetic diversity [1] and unbiased expected heterozygosity have been found to decrease along this gradient.     

The structure of genotypic diversity and the possibility of sexual reproduction in populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tulipa riparia</Emphasis> (Liliaceae)

The structure of genotypic diversity in eight populations of the clonal triploid (2n = 3x = 36) tulip Tulipa riparia inhabiting floodplain communities in the Southern Urals was studied. Analysis of nine polymorphic enzyme systems (ADH, IDH, SkDH, PGI, PGM, FDH, NADHdh, C-EST, GOT) was performed to identify clones. Both monoclonal (D = 0) and polyclonal populations with multiple genotypes from 3 to 12 (D from 0.73 to 0.91) were identified. The polyclonal populations had a high level of heterozygosity. Dispersal of propagules (bulbs) along rivers and even from one bank of a river to the opposite was detected. Some clones disperse along riverbanks to the distance of hundreds meters (up to four kilometres). At the same time, there is an effect of “isolated” or “closed” populations. Almost each sequentially arranged population in one river system have its own set of genotypes. Assessment of the state of the reproductive system components indicates presence of a rare sexual reproduction supporting genetic diversity of T. riparia.     

Knowing the past to forecast the future: a case study on a relictual,endemic species of the SW Alps, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Berardia subacaulis</Emphasis>

Future climate change may lead to a substantial loss of biodiversity, particularly affecting mountain regions, including the Alps. Range-size reduction in high mountain plant species is predicted to be more pronounced for endemic species. Investigating the broad temporal spectrum of range shifts is important for the conservation of biodiversity, since learning how species responded to climate change in the past provides useful insights on how they might react to warming trends in the present and future. Using species distribution models and an ensemble forecasting approach, we explored how the distribution of Berardia subacaulis, a monospecific genus endemic of the south-west Alps, may be affected by past and future projected climate change. During the last interglacial, the habitat suitability of Berardia was lower than present and a progressive increase was observed from the last glacial maximum until now. In the future, Berardia appears to lose more than 80 % of its range, becoming endangered by 2050. Our results suggest that Berardia probably survived past warmer periods in situ, expanding its distributional range during cooler periods. The severe future range contraction predicted for Berardia reflects similar results for other endemic species. As Berardia represents an interesting model species to evaluate the effects of climate warming on range size and shifts, demographic and precise range monitoring may be undertaken on this species.     

Gradient Genogeographic Analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pinus sylvestris</Emphasis> L. Populations in Europe

Gradients of Nei's genetic distances between 15 samples of Pinus sylvestris L. trees were analyzed along three submeridional transects, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and Transcaucasia. As a result, distinct chorogenetic differentiation was revealed between the populations of this species growing in climatically specific regions of northern and southern Europe. Considerable Nei's distances (DN = 0.045–0.056) and their gradients, combined with differences in stable phenotypic characters (the composition of monoterpenes and morphological parameters of cones) determined at the Pyrenean and Caucasian mountain borders, suggest that the P. sylvestris species structure includes two South Eurasian subspecies, the Pyrenean P. sylvestris L., ssp. iberica Svoboda and the Transcaucasian P. sylvestris L., ssp. hamata (Stev.) Fomin.     

Species-specific Features of Blood Plasma Amino Acid Spectrum of Bats (Mammalia: Chiroptera) in the Urals

The amino acid spectrum of blood plasma in three bat species (Myotis dasycneme, Pipistrellus nathusii, Vespertilio murinus) inhabiting the Urals has been studied for the first time. The bats were trapped in the zone of their high abundance in Chelyabinsk oblast (2013–2014). Free amino acids were determined by liquid ion exchange chromatography (a total of 384 determinations). It has been shown that the plasma amino acid spectrum consists of 22 amino acids in subadult bats of all three species, but there are species-specific differences in their concentrations. The total amino-acid pool concentration in migratory P. nathusii and V. murinus exceeds that in resident M. dasycneme by factors of 2.9 and 1.8, respectively. Migratory species are characterized by a high concentration of plasma arginine: it is six times higher in V. murinus than in M. dasycneme, and in P. nathusii arginine accounts for 25.4% of the amino acid pool. The group of glucogenic amino acids is prevalent in the blood plasma of migratory species (75% in V. murinus and 79% in P. nathusii), while in M. dasycneme the total proportion of lysine, glycine, and glutamic acid is 2.3 times lower than in P. nathusii and 1.7 lower than in V. murinus (p < 0.05). These results provide evidence for significant differences in the contents of free blood plasma amino acids between migratory and resident bat species.     

Pleistocene Refugia for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calluna vulgaris</Emphasis> (L.) Hull Populations in the European Atlantic Region

The distribution of nine chloroplast DNA haplotypes in four insular North-Atlantic and four European coastal Atlantic populations of Calluna vulgaris in the glacial zone of the range has been analyzed in comparison with that in six marginal southern populations in the nonglacial zone of the Atlantic and Mediterranean regions. As a result, two hypothetical Pleistocene refugia (HPRs) for this C. vulgaris population group have been revealed, one in the Cévennes mountain range and the other in the Southern Alps (Trento). Judging from the 1–F_ST value, it has been found that the group of populations in the glacial Atlantic zone and adjacent European coastal Atlantic region is genetically similar to the HPR in the Cévennes at a highly significant level (p ≥ 0.999) and less similar to the HPR in Trento; however, it differs significantly from other Mediterranean and Atlantic populations. It has been concluded that the most probable hypothetical Pleistocene refugium for the recent C. vulgaris populations of the northeastern Atlantic and European coastal Atlantic regions was in the west of the Mediterranean, in the Cévennes, while the additional refugium was in the Southern Alps. Possible directions of the postglacial dispersal and recolonization of habitats by C. vulgaris populations from the western Mediterranean to the northeast of the Atlantic and to Scandinavia have been revealed.     

Assessment of nonselective elimination effects in rodent communities by methods of geometric morphometrics

Methods of geometric morphometrics and population phenogenetics have been used to evaluate morphogenetic rearrangements in two sympatric species of Myodes voles (M. glareolus Schreb. 1780 and M. rutilus Pall. 1779) from syntopic populations recovering after exposure to local “ecological vacuum” created as a result of rodent extermination in a natural focus of hemorrhagic fever in the southern taiga subzone of the Udmurt Republic. The model used in the study simulates the situation that arises upon nonselective elimination of rodent populations and communities in spring and their subsequent recovery. Analysis of variation in the size and shape of the mandible and in a complex of 30 nonmetric cranial characters has revealed similar (parallel) and species-specific morphogenetic and epigenetic changes occurring during the recovery of local rodent community. Species-specific differences in the pattern of change in the parameter characterizing within-group morphological disparity in the mandible shape (MNND) have been revealed between the dominant species (M. glareolus) and the subdominant species competing with it for territory (M. rutilus). Different reactions of close Myodes species in the course of filling the ecological vacuum are considered as a result of reduction in the level of competition for the subdominant species and a compensatory increase of morphological disparity in the dominant species under conditions of low density and incomplete composition of the community, in accordance with Chernov’s (2005) ecological compensation principle.     

Chronosequence-based population structure and natural regeneration of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Haloxylon ammodendron</Emphasis> plantation in the southern edge of the Gurbantunggut Desert,Northwestern China

In the Gurbantunggut Desert of Northwestern China, we surveyed the population structure and regeneration characteristics of six Haloxylon ammodendron plantations based on chronosequencing. The results showed that the age class of an individual H. ammodendron plant from youngest to oldest showed growth potential under the present environment. The optimal termination stage of H. ammodendron occurred at 20 years of age, which was accompanied by a regeneration phase at 17 years. The H. ammodendron plantations started to regenerate after 7 years. The maximal height and basal stem diameter of a grade III seedling reached 1.2 m and 1.9 cm in a 17-year-old plantation. In a 33-year-old plantation, the transformation rate of the seedling from grade I to grade III increased up to 92.3%. Although the seedling bank was plentiful in the plantations, the replenishment of the canopy was not continuous and timely. Therefore, measures to further the stability and sustainability of H. ammodendron plantation were necessary.     

Developmental Stability of the Skull in the Pygmy Wood Mouse (Mammalia,Rodentia) along Altitudinal Gradient in the Western and Central Caucasus

To assess the stability of individual development of the pygmy wood mouse (Apodemus uralensis) in mountain areas with different ecogeographic conditions, the levels of fluctuating asymmetry in a series of skull phenes have been evaluated in ten samples from the Western and Central Caucasus. Attention has been focused on the influence of change in environmental conditions along the elevational gradient and the impact of some anthropogenic factors. An increase in the index of fluctuation asymmetry FA_nm has been revealed in samples from populations exposed to pollutants and, in the absence of pollution, from areas where the average annual temperature drops below 5°С (mid-mountain regions). Instability of skull development observed in A. uralensis from the foothills of the Western Caucasus may be a consequence of competitive relationships with the Black Sea field mouse A. ponticus, a sympatric species that inhabits the same biotopes as does A. uralensis but numerically prevails over it.     

Plant Species Richness and Developmental Morphology Stage Influence Mycorrhizal Patagonia Plants Root Colonization

The objectives of this study were to determine the percentage of root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi at various levels of plant species richness and developmental morphology stages in various perennial grass, and herbaceous and woody dicots species using experimental plots during 2013 and 2014. An auger was used to obtain six replicate root + soil samples at each sampling time on each of the study parameters. Roots were washed free of soil, and percentage AM was determined. The shrub Larrea divaricata was the species which showed the lowest percentage of colonization by AM at the vegetative developmental morphology stage at the monocultures and six-species-mixtures on the experimental plots. Dicots, but not grass, species showed a greater percentage colonization by AM fungi at the greatest (i.e., six-species-mixtures) than lowest (i.e., monocultures) species richness. Although at different degrees of species richness and developmental morphology stages, the perennial grasses Nassella longiglumis and N. tenuis, the herbaceous dicot Atriplex semibaccata, and the shrubs L. divaricata and Schinus fasciculatus showed a greater (p < 0.050) percentage colonization by AM fungi during the second than the first study year. Even though it was species- and sampling time-dependent, percentage colonization by AM fungi increased as species richness also increased most of the times. Our results demonstrated that the plant species differences in percentage colonization by AM fungi in the experimental plots were species richness-, developmental morphology stage-, and sampling-time dependents.     

Ecological role of lipids and fatty acids in the early postembryonic development of the daubed shanny, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leptoclinus maculatus</Emphasis> (Fries, 1838) from Kongsfjorden,West Spitsbergen in winter

The dynamics of lipid and fatty acid composition of the muscles (flesh) and lipid sac in L. maculatus early life stages of different age collected in Kongsfjorden (Svalbard, Norway), in winter, during the polar night was studied. We showed that the total lipid content in the muscles increases on account of energetic triacylglycerols derived from the lipid sac, which is resorbed in juveniles as they switch to a demersal mode of life. The fatty acid spectrum directly reflects age-dependent and seasonal features of L. maculatus early life stages. The results of the study elucidate the specific role of lipids and fatty acids in the ecological and biochemical mechanisms related to ontogenic development of fish from the family Stichaeidae, particularly arctic-boreal L. maculatus, which assumed to become increasingly frequent in the Spitsbergen water area. They are important for understanding the ability of organisms to maintain and preserve the functional stability of ecosystems as a whole, especially under conditions of climate change in the Arctic.     

Species richness,structure, and conservation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nitraria retusa</Emphasis> communities in the coastal salt marshes of Kuwait

Although the coastal salt marshes of Arabian Gulf have been altered extensively by human development activities, there is a paucity of data describing changes in the distribution and abundance of native coastal plant communities. The main objectives of this study are to determine vegetation condition, size structure, and conservation status of Nitraria retusa, a medicinal and salt-tolerant shrub, in disturbed and non-disturbed coastal salt marshes of Kuwait. Size measurements of Nitraria shrubs and nabkas, which are mounds of sediment developed around shrubs, were carried out in 50 quadrats (20 × 20 m²), randomly selected inside and outside Sabah Al-Ahmad Natural Reserve. Species richness and soil properties of nabkas and interspaces, the open areas between the nabkas, were also measured. The results revealed that nabkas of Nitraria in non-disturbed sites are more stable and rich in plant diversity than those in disturbed sites. Mean height and mean canopy diameter of Nitraria shrubs, total plant cover, and species richness are significantly higher in non-disturbed sites than disturbed sites, which indicate the positive influences of conservation for long term on vegetation structure and species richness. The results of soil analyses indicate the important role of nabkas in providing refuges for plant life and species diversity. The present study indicates that more than 50 % of the N. retusa community has been lost during the last few decades. Therefore, N. retusa should be considered an endangered species in Kuwait. The reduction in vegetation cover, a decline in species richness, and the overall degradation of salt marshes are attributed to human development activities along the coast of Kuwait. Effective conservation actions for threatened species in degraded coastal salt marshes of this region include establishment of protective enclosures, prohibitions on development that adversely affects native plant communities, and the planting native salt-tolerant shrubs to facilitate regeneration.     

Phenotypic variation of the rare species <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cephalaria uralensis</Emphasis> (Murr.) Schrad. ex Roem. et Schult. in the Republic of Bashkortostan,the Southern Urals

Variation in morphometric parameters of the poorly studied rare species Cephalaria uralensis (Murr.) Schrad. ex Roem. et Schult. has been studied at the northern boundary of its range, in the Southern Urals (Bashkortostan). The species in the region grows in four types of steppe communities of the class Festuco-Brometea. Variation in the majority of parameters is within the species reaction norm. The most variable parameters are the numbers of vegetative and generative shoots and the number of inflorescences per shoot. As shown by discriminant analysis, all 16 cenopopulations included in the study significantly differ from each other (Wilks’ λ = 0.21), with most of them being morphologically and structurally uniform. The state of local C. uralensis appears to be satisfactory, and this species is not at serious risk for extinction in the territory of Bashkortostan.