中国人口老龄化地区差异分解及影响因素研究

文章选取老龄化系数、老少比两个指标,首先运用泰尔指数分析法测算了1995-2011年中国人口老龄化地区差异,并按三区域进行结构分解;然后结合省际面板数据使用FGLS估计法实证检验了全国、东部、中部、西部各层面人口老龄化的影响因素。研究结论表明:中国人口老龄化具有非均衡空间分布特征,地区差异明显但短期变化趋势并不稳定,呈现反复波动态势;长期来看,老龄化地区差异呈逐渐扩大趋势;2004年以后,中、西部省际间老龄化差异呈扩大趋势,东部呈收敛趋势,东部省际间差异对老龄化总体差异影响最大;总体上看,区域内老龄化差异呈扩大趋势,区域间差异呈收敛趋势,区域内差异远大于区域间差异,这说明老龄化总体差异主要是由区域内差异引起的;人均GDP、出生率是影响我国人口老龄化的最重要两大因素;死亡率对全国层面老龄化反向影响效果显著,城市化率对中、西部层面老龄化正向影响较大,而文盲率对各层面老龄化未见反向影响效果。     

我国碳排放区域差异性分析

在对我国各地区的碳排放总量、人均碳排放和碳排放强度进行计算的基础上，运用Theil系数等方法对我国碳排放区域差异性进行分析。Theil系数分析结果表明我国碳排放强度呈现区域差异性，区域内差异是总体差异的主要原因，而东部和中部地区内部差异是导致区域内差异的主要原因；变异系数分析结果表明：碳排放总量东部地区差异最大、中部最小，人均碳排放西部地区差异最大、东部最小，碳排放强度中部地区差异最大、东部最小；基尼系数分析结果表明：西部地区碳排放差异最大，中部次之，东部最小；运用聚类分析将全国各省碳排放现状分为优、良、中、差四大类。针对研究结果，提出了转化经济发展方式、优化产业结构等节能减排建议     

基于泰尔熵指数的中国区域能源效率的差异性分析

本文以能源强度作为能源效率指标,对1995-2010年我国东部、中部和西部地区进行了能源效率分析,并运用泰尔熵指数对三区域能源效率的差异性进行实证研究。研究结果表明,我国总体、区域内、区域间能源效率差异均呈现不断减小的趋势,总体能源效率差异和区域内能源效率差异减小的速度较快,且总体能源效率差异的主要构成部分是区域内能源效率差异。三区域内部能源效率的差异性表现各异,东部和中部地区的内部能源效率差异逐渐减小,而西部地区内部能源效率差异则呈现出波动变化特征。     

基于DDF-DEA三阶段模型的省域节能减排效率评价

过去五年,生态环境治理明显加强,环境状况得到改善,全面节约资源有效推进,能源资源消耗强度大幅下降,然而环保部门数据显示,中国大气污染程度仍然十分严重。因此,评价中国各省域节能减排效率并提出政策建议,对优化生产生活方式,实现"十三五"节能减排目标有着理论与实践意义。本文剔除了数据缺失的河北、西藏两个地区,选取2015中国大陆29个省(自治区、直辖市)作为样本考察对象,把能源消耗量作为投入变量,GDP作为期望产出变量,二氧化硫、氮氧化物、烟(粉尘)等废气排放量作为非期望产出变量,构建DDF-DEA模型测算各省域节能减排效率,并利用SFA模型剔除产业结构、废气治理等外部环境因素和随机噪声对节能减排效率的影响。结果显示:(1)节能减排整体有效省(自治区、直辖市)的数量偏少,仅有北京市和广东省有效;(2)地区间节能减排效率差异明显,与经济发达程度密切相关,总体呈现东部地带中部地带西部地带的态势;(3)纯技术水平普遍较高。造成节能减排效率低的主要原因是无规模效应,中西部地带尤为突出,特别是西部地带规模效应与最优规模效应差距太大,如何提高能源利用的规模效应是今后改革的重点之一。文章最后从政府、企业、公众三个层面给出建议:保护环境、治理环境政府必须发挥主导作用,企业是中坚力量,公众是重要参与者,为建设美丽中国,打赢蓝天保卫战做出共同努力。     

技术异质下中国大气污染排放效率的区域差异与影响因素

近年来中国雾霾天气的频繁发生给人们的生产、生活以及身体健康构成巨大威胁。提高大气污染排放效率,深入挖掘大气污染减排潜力是改善中国大气环境质量,减少和消除雾霾天气发生的重要途径。本文根据生态效率理论,充分考虑到不同区域发展的不平衡因素与技术异质性特征,在共同前沿方法框架下科学测算2006—2014年间中国30个省份的大气污染排放效率,在此基础上分析效率的区域差异,利用"技术差距比(TGR)"这一指标衡量东部、中部与西部三大区域之间大气污染排放技术的差距,并从"技术"与"管理"两个维度进一步将各省份大气污染排放无效率分解为"技术差距无效率(TGI)"与"管理无效率(GMI)",以此定位各省份大气污染防治的薄弱环节,进而构建策略矩阵,将全国各省份归入四个不同排放效率特征的方阵,并给出相应的优化路径与措施;深入揭示大气污染排放效率与排放强度之间的内在联系,提出"大气污染排放强度效率"这一全新概念并考察其演化趋势;利用面板Tobit回归模型检验影响我国省际大气污染排放效率与排放技术的外部环境因素。实证结果表明:1中国大气污染排放效率整体水平偏低,年均仅为0.493,污染减排潜力巨大;2中国大气污染排放效率与排放技术的地区差异显著,无论是大气污染排放效率还是排放技术水平,东部地区都是明显高于中部与西部地区;3中国大气污染的实际排放强度明显高于潜在排放强度,这表明大气污染排放强度还存在很大的改进空间;4经济发展、产业结构升级与科技创新对大气污染排放效率与排放技术的提升均有显著促进作用,煤炭消费比重上升与人口密度过大则对其有显著抑制作用;5本文的研究结论支持"波特假说"与"污染避难所"假说。     

城镇景观格局对区域碳排放影响及其差别化管控研究

建设低碳城市作为可持续发展的重要议题在国内外受到广泛关注,开展城镇景观格局对区域CO_2排放影响及其差别化管制研究对建设低碳城市尤为重要。当前我国缺乏完整的、可信度高的CO_2排放基础数据,地级市尺度上的CO_2排放时空特征及其驱动机制研究非常匮乏。论文基于CHRED数据库的2005年和2012年全国281个地级市CO_2排放数据,结合相应年度的土地利用覆被数据,分析全国及区域(东部、中部、西部)城镇景观格局及其CO_2排放的区域特征,从结构(城镇用地比例)和布局(斑块密度、最大斑块指数、平均最近距离)两方面,实证检验城镇景观格局对区域CO_2排放的影响,最后提出基于碳减排的区域差别化管制政策。研究表明:(1)城镇用地占比、斑块密度、集聚性在空间上呈现出"东高西低"的特征;除了西部地区的集聚性呈缩小趋势外,其他指标均呈现出扩大趋势。(2)西部地区城镇用地占比与地均CO_2排放呈正相关性;中部地区城镇用地平均最近距离与地均CO_2排放呈负相关性;东部、中部地区最大斑块指数与地均CO_2排放呈正相关性。不同区域的城镇景观格局对CO_2排放的影响机制不同,因而应当对城市发展实施差别化管控:东部地区应采取"多核心"的城市发展策略以降低区域CO_2排放水平;中部地区在采用"多核心"的发展策略的同时要兼顾集聚性,发挥其集聚效应;西部地区要显化其全国的生态屏障功能,更加严格地控制建设用地面积,避免城市无序扩张。     

基于二次能源省际调配的中国分省CO2排放量计算

节能减排目标任务的制定需要依据科学合理的CO2排放量测算。现有的IPCC提供的CO2排放量计算方法仅考虑一次能源燃料所产生的CO2,未考虑到二次能源省际调配的情况,不能真实反映各省CO2排放情况。本研究提出了考虑二次能源省际调配情况下CO2排放量的计算方法,并以2009年的数据为例,对各省能源消费CO2排放量进行了计算。考虑二次能源省际调配后,传统的能源大省如内蒙古、山西的CO2排放总量下降,东部沿海省份的CO2排放总量上升。中西部地区的CO2排放强度仍显著高于东部地区。中西部地区存在能源利用效率低、能源加工技术设备落后的情况,导致了西部地区的CO2排放强度偏高。建议中央在实施西部大开发"十二五"规划时,应当加强对中西部地区能源加工行业的投资,改善能源加工技术,改良加工设备,提高能源加工效率,降低CO2排放强度。建议由能源调入省向能源调出省份实施补偿。该部分补偿资金用于调出省的能源产业升级改造,以顺利实现节能减排的目标。     

新疆地级市CO_2排放空间特征研究

基于中国高空间分辨率网格数据,建立新疆地级市CO_2排放数据集,探讨新疆CO_2排放的空间特征,为新疆低碳发展的空间布局规划提供一定的依据。研究采用"自下而上"的空间化方法建立排放数据集,并用统计学方法分析排放数据统计特征。研究结果:从整体看,CO_2直接排放总体分散,局部集中,基本沿着天山分为南部和北部,北部地区排放高于南部地区。从区域看,天山北坡经济带CO_2排放最高;丝绸之路经济带的中通道、北通道和南通道排放依次递减。从部门看,服务业与城镇生活CO_2排放相关性最高,间接排放与其他部门排放相关性最弱。从类型看,工业型地级市CO_2人均排放最高,总排放均值略低于服务业型地级市,远高于其他类型地级市;人口规模越大的地级市CO_2排放均值越大,但其人均排放越少。结论与讨论:1新疆CO_2排放空间差异显著,其排放较大的地级市整体效率不高,将是减排的重点区。2工业化、城镇化是新疆CO_2排放的重要影响因素,将是减排的着力点。3省际生态补偿和碳排放指标分配时应适度考虑能源输出引致本地较高CO_2排放的特情。     

区域旅游业碳排放及其影响因素——基于旅游流动性视角

旅游业在促进经济增长的同时,带来的负面环境影响也不容忽视。首先,借鉴流体力学理论构建"旅游流动性"概念,对区域旅游流动性进行测度,并在此基础上分析其时空演变特征。其次,基于"自下而上"法,考虑区域能源结构的差异,引入修订后的综合碳排放系数测算2000—2017年中国区域旅游业碳排放量,同时对旅游流动性与旅游业碳排放之间的关系进行探讨。最后,以旅游流动性为核心解释变量,基于IPAT模型选择旅游者人数、旅游者人均消费支出、区域技术水平以及航空客运量作为控制变量,分析各影响因素对旅游业碳排放的作用。研究结果表明:(1)研究期内,中国区域旅游流动性整体水平持续提升,省际差距明显,其均值处于235～11 695人km之间。旅游流动性的分布具备明显梯度特征,长期保持"东部地区中部地区东北地区西部地区"的空间格局,其高值区和中高值区逐步由东部的经济发达省区向西部及东北地区扩张演化。(2)中国区域旅游业碳排放量从4 120.70万t增加至20 365.59万t。旅游业碳排放和旅游流动性的马太效应明显,在空间上以京沪粤、甘青宁为核心呈现"高流动高排放"、"低流动低排放"的集聚特征。(3)中国区域旅游业碳排放受到多种因素的共同影响,其中,核心解释变量旅游流动性对旅游业碳排放的影响显著,具体表现为U型曲线关系;控制变量航空客运量、旅游者人数、旅游者人均消费支出的作用强度依次减小,上述变量分别增加1%将导致旅游业碳排放量各增加0.33%、0.27%和0.15%。区域技术水平对旅游业碳排放的影响不显著。     

区域间供给驱动的碳排放溢出与反馈效应

减缓区域间的碳排放溢出-反馈效应对中国协调区域发展和实现绿色发展意义重大。本文基于供给多区域投入产出模型建立了供给视角下三区域碳排放溢出-反馈效应的分析方法,继而测算了2002-2010年中国东、中、西部之间的碳排放溢出-反馈乘数和实际效应。研究发现,在整个研究时期内东、中部对西部以及东、中部之间的溢出乘数有所下降,但西部对东、中部的溢出乘数有所上升。同时,三大地区的反馈乘数则都有所上升。不过,由于各个地区的经济总量都显著上升,因而各区域各种实际的碳排放效应在整个研究时期内都显著上升。东部对中、西部地区的溢出乘数明显小于中、西部对东部地区的溢出乘数,且东部地区的反馈乘数也几乎一直小于中部和西部。不过,由于东部地区的经济总量远远大于中、西部,因而东部地区各种实际的碳排放效应在整个研究时期内都显著大于中、西部地区相应的实际碳排放效应。三大地区碳排放溢出及反馈乘数效应较大的部门很相似,它们都以采掘业及相关下游重工业为主,如煤炭开采和洗选业。碳排放溢出及反馈乘数效应较小的部门则主要包括通信设备、计算机及其他电子设备制造业、建筑业以及服务业。为减缓区域间供给驱动的碳排放溢出-反馈效应,地区间应当加强在碳减排领域的合作,以此提升区域间供应链的碳排放效率;促进节能减排技术的推广应用以提高各部门特别是碳排放密集型产业的能源利用效率;同时应大力发展清洁型战略新兴产业并严格控制碳密集型产业的扩张,从而优化产业结构。     

WSSD 2002, Latin America and Brazil: Biodiversity and Indigenous People

Latin America comprehends notable variations in terms of natural environment, availability of natural resources, living standards, and demographic patterns. Latin America is a mosaic of cultures, post- and pre-Columbian. The rich variety of life forms discovered and described by chroniclers and traveling naturalists in the Neotropics contributed to the proposal, in mid-XVIIIth century, of a new system of classification and a scientific code of nomenclature for all organisms. Biodiversity was, for many centuries, a source of resources to be exploited in natura. In scientific circles, its inventory became the domain of taxonomists. But modern technology showed how important the miriad of life forms really are as sources of chemical molecules to be engineered as drugs and reassembled as novel manufactured products. We are on the brink of a new agricultural and medical revolution, thanks to the techniques of genetic engineering, which will lead eventually to the elimination of hunger and malnutrition.In this essay, the Brazilian environmental and social heterogeneity will serve as an example to illustrate some key points, which have influenced sustainability policies. The Amazon deforestation and indigenous knowledge (IK), subjects often associated with areas of high biodiversity, are usually the focus of environmental debates. The importance of IK in integrating development, reducing poverty and sustainability are considered together with the intellectual property rights of native populations.In the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Implementation Plan, a few paragraphs were dedicated to Latin America, because of the pre-existing Action Platform on the Road to Johannesburg 2002, approved in Rio de Janeiro in October 2001. This paper calls attention to the need to draw up specific environmental policies for a region which shows an extremely high cultural and biological diversity, associated with a high availability of forests and water, among other resources.     

Household water in rural asia: a case study of the construction of a piped water system in Bangui,Ilocos Norte,Philippines

In early 1980 an extension agent was assigned to the rural municipality of Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines to work on development projects – in particular the improvement of the supply of safe water for drinking and sanitation. After many months of visiting spring sites and meeting with community leaders, a small part of the municipality was selected to build a gravity fed piped water system. Although the system took many months to plan, identify funding and construct, the 600 community members were ultimately rewarded with house to house connections that enabled them to achieve per capita water consumption levels above the minimum levels recommended by the World Health Organization. Of course, money was critical to ensure the project’s success, but many other factors played an equally critical role. For instance, without the active participation of the community and the unwavering support of the community leadership the project would not have survived the initial planning stage. Also, the extension agent played a critical role by acting as a conduit between funding agencies, the Bureau of Public Works and the community. The primary lesson to be learned from this experience is that the success of rural development projects is largely driven by the synergy between the community, technical support, financial support, and agents of change such as extension agents. If any of these ingredients had been lacking, the project result would likely have been far different.     

The Phenomenon of Pseudoviviparity in Alpine and Arctomontane Grasses (DeschampsiaBeauv., FestucaL., and PoaL.)

It is known that pseudoviviparous plant taxa are most numerous in the Arctic and high mountain regions, where they sometimes account for a noticeable part of the local flora and play an important phytocenotic role. The complex of pseudoviviparous taxa is an interesting model for investigating the processes of hybridogenic speciation, as various mechanisms stabilizing the hybrid genetic systems proved to be effective in them. In particular, this concerns vast and taxonomically complex groups such as the genera Deschampsia, Festuca, and Poa.In this paper, published data on the taxonomy, chromosome numbers, and distribution of pseudoviviparous grasses in the Arctic regions and subarctic mountain systems are reviewed.     

Human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), as evidenced by data from a duplicate diet study, indoor air, house dust, and biomonitoring in Germany

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are used as flame retardants in a wide variety of products. As part of the Integrated Exposure Assessment Survey (INES), this study aimed to characterize the exposure of an adult German population using duplicate diet samples, which were collected daily over seven consecutive days, and indoor air and house dust measurements. Our study population consisted of 27 female and 23 male healthy subjects, aged 14–60 years, all of whom resided in 34 homes in southern Bavaria. In these 34 residences the air was sampled using glass fiber filters and polyurethane foams and the dust was collected from used vacuum cleaner bags.The median (95th percentile) daily dietary intake of six Tetra- to HeptaBDE congeners was 1.2 ng/kg b.w. (3.3 ng/kg b.w.) or 67.8 ng/day (208 ng/day) (calculated from the 7-day median values of each study subject). Concentrations in indoor air and dust (cumulative Tri- to DecaBDE congener readings) ranged from 8.2 to 477 pg/m³ (median: 37.8 pg/m³) and 36.6 to 1580 ng/g (median: 386 ng/g), respectively. For some congeners, we identified a significant correlation between air and dust levels.The median (95th percentile) blood concentration of total Tetra- to HexaBDE congener readings was 5.6 (13.2) ng/g lipid. No significant sex differences were observed, but higher blood concentrations were found in younger participants. Using a simplified toxicokinetic model to predict the body burden from exposure doses led to results that were of the same order of magnitude as the measured blood concentrations.Based on these measurements and given our exposure assumptions, we estimated for the total tetra- to heptabrominated congener count an average (high) comprehensive total daily intake of 1.2 ng/kg b.w. (2.5 ng/kg b.w.). Overall, our results suggest that dietary exposure is the dominant intake pathway at least in our study population, responsible for 97% (average intake) and 95% (high intake) of the total intake of an adult population.     

A new general mechanistic river model for radionuclides from single pulse fallouts which can be run by readily accessible driving variables

This paper presents a new general, process-based river model for substances such as radionuclides from single pulse fallouts. The new model has been critically tested using data from 13 European rivers contaminated by radiocesium from the Chernobyl accident. This modelling approach gives radionuclide concentrations in water (total, dissolved and particulate phases; and also concentrations in sediments and fish, but the latter aspects are not discussed in this paper) at defined river sites. The model is based on processes in the upstream river stretch and in the upstream catchment area. The catchment area is differentiated into inflow ( approximately dry land) areas and outflow ( approximately wetland) areas. The model also accounts for time-dependent fixation of substances in the catchment. The catchment area sub-model is based on a previous catchment model, which has been tested with very good results for radiocesium, radiostrontium and Ca-concentrations (from liming operations). The new river model is simple to apply in practice since all driving variables may be readily accessed from maps and standard monitoring programs. The driving variables are: latitude, altitude, continentality, catchment area, mean annual precipitation, soil type (percentages or organic and sandy soils), fallout and month of fallout. Modelled values have been compared to independent empirical data from 10 rivers sites (91 data on radiocesium in water) covering a wide domain (catchment areas from 4000 to 180 000 km(2), precipitation from 500 to 960 mm/yr and fallout from 1700 to 660 000 Bq/m(2)). The new model predicts very well--when modelled values are compared to empirical data, the slope is perfect (1.0) and the r(2)-value is 0.90. This is good giving the fact that there are also uncertainties in the empirical data, which set a limit to the achieved predictive power, as expressed by the r(2)-value.     

Conservation, commercialisation and confusion: harvesting of Ischyrolepis in a coastal forest, South Africa

Harvesting of non-timber forest products is an integral component of rural livelihoods throughout the developing world. At times this is at odds with conservation objectives. Reconciliation of the two requires examination of local level contexts and needs. This paper reports on the harvesting needs for Ischyrolepis by a rural community in South Africa, against the setting that they had recently been prohibited from harvesting by the local conservation officials. Interviews were conducted with conservation officials to understand the reasoning for the prohibition. Local demand for Ischyrolepis was assessed by household surveys, as well as in-depth interviews with traders. The density and size class distribution of Ischyrolepis was determined using transects. The total annual demand for Ischyrolepis was determined to be approximately only 2.7% of the standing crop. The bulk of the annual demand was for small-scale trade, the income from which was a primary source of income for the few harvesters. Very little evidence could be found indicating that harvesting was damaging the resource or its habitat, and local knowledge suggested that the abundance of the species was stimulated by harvesting. Even if market demand were to increase, the size of the shoots required means that less than 20% of the standing crop could be harvested annually. Current regulations around harvesting are in a state of revision, and hence confusion prevails regarding if harvesting is permissible, and if so, under what conditions, which is detrimental to both conservation and livelihoods. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Radionuclide content of building materials and associated gamma dose rates in Egyptian dwellings

Studies have been carried out to determine the natural radioactivity in some building materials (bricks, tiles, marble and ceramics) and their associated radiation hazard. The radioactivity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K were measured using a gamma spectrometer with a Hp–Ge detector. The activities of ²³⁸U and ²³⁴U were measured using an alpha-spectrometer with a surface barrier detector after applying a radiochemical procedure. The ²³⁴U/²³⁸U isotopic ratios were calculated. The radium equivalent activities and the radiation hazard index associated with the natural radionuclides were calculated. A computer program was developed and applied to calculate the dose rate a person will receive from the walls of a room constructed from the studied building materials.     

Education for Sustainable Development: The Johannesburg Summit and Beyond

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in Johannesburg during 26 August and 4 September 2002, was a truly remarkable event, not least because it identified and committed the world community to what has to be done to realise Agenda 21 objectives. Discussion begins with the "means of implementation" of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPI). Education for, and raising awareness of, sustainable development are the key commitments in the "means of implementation". The issues central to these commitments are discussed. The crucial role of moral philosophy in education for sustainable development is then discussed. Defining the "problem" as lack of progress (in fact negative progress between Rio and Johannesburg) towards global sustainable development, a cause–effect relationship of the "problem" is developed based on a systematic and logical analysis. It shows that the "cause" is West's profoundly materialistic, environment-degrading and exploitative attitude and activities to satisfy grossly unsustainable, hedonistic and insatiably avaricious Western life-styles – life-styles that are held up by the West as "ideal" fruits of economic "development" to be aspired by all. The "effects" are pollution of air, water and soil; mounting loss of biodiversity, ecosystems and species; relentlessly widening north–south divide, etc. It is argued that while science and technology can address some of the "effects", they cannot address the "cause". Only moral philosophy can by fundamentally re-orienting moral values genuinely to respect nature and the environment. Based on sound and tested principles of Educational Psychology, a proposal is then made for including moral philosophy in the formal curricula (content and pedagogy) of primary, secondary and higher education for instilling in children and young people genuinely environment-respecting moral values. To this end a generic syllabus for the secondary level is proposed. Finally, it is argued that if the scientific community really believes that science or technology alone can radically change the pervasive environment-degrading moral values to those that genuinely respect the environment, thus paving the way to real global sustainability, then it must demonstrate how this could be done and explain why, despite their abundant science and technology, the developed nations are the biggest polluters and consumers with grossly unsustainable life-styles. Certainly, examples would be much more convincing than rhetoric or tired old clichés about how science and technology alone could deliver global sustainable development.