市场化改革能提高中国工业用地利用效率吗?

工业用地利用效率低下已经成为中国土地管理领域的难题,通过市场机制调节资源利用效率是重要努力方向。但目前尚缺乏系统性评估中国工业用地市场化改革对工业用地利用效率影响相关研究。本文从地方政府干预工业用地出让市场现实出发构建了工业用地市场化改革与工业用地利用效率关系的理论分析框架,基于2007-2013年中国省级面板数据,实证检验工业用地市场化改革对工业用地利用效率的影响及其区域异质性。研究发现,工业用地市场化改革显著提高了我国工业用地利用效率,这种效应在中部和西部地区更为突出。但是由于现阶段我国工业用地市场发育仍处于较低水平,工业用地资源价值并未得到有效显化,导致工业用地市场化改革对工业用地利用效率的影响效应总体比较微弱;地方政府对工业用地出让程序和出让价格的干预,显著降低了市场化改革对工业用地资源优化配置功能的发挥,并且在经济发展水平越高的地区,地方政府干预出让市场对企业用地行为扭曲力度更大,导致工业用地市场化改革对工业用地利用效率的影响越小,东部地区甚至转为负面影响。同时,相比对工业用地出让方式的干预,地方政府操纵工业用地出让价格对企业土地利用行为的影响更为明显。本文认为在深化土地要素市场化改革过程中,要把规范地方政府土地出让行为和建立良好的土地市场生态作为重要方向,把促进工业用地价格向合理资源价值回归作为改革落脚点。     

生态系统服务市场化工具:概念、类型与适用

生态系统服务市场化工具作为一种与命令控制型进路相对的环境政策工具,最初与污染问题相联系而出现,之后扩展至生物多样性和生态系统服务的保护,被认为能够更有效地应对市场失灵,为自然资源管理提供正向激励,有助于优化资源配置以及填补生态保护资金缺口。通过对生态系统服务市场化工具概念、类型和适用的考察,可以发现生态系统服务市场化工具的概念虽频繁出现,但界定过于宽泛模糊,几乎泛指所有带有价格成分的工具;生态系统服务市场化工具的类型划分并不一致,基于归纳的类型划分将现行市场化工具归纳为基于价格的机制、基于数量的机制和市场摩擦机制三类,而基于演绎的类型划分,则将市场化工具分为直接市场交易、许可证交易、反向拍卖、科斯类型协议、调控价格变化和自愿性价格信号六类;生态系统服务市场化工具的适用需要以生态系统服务的货币化为前提,受制于制度背景,并且应当针对市场的弊端予以法律规制,确保交易能够真正提供环境效益;市场化工具的选择不仅有赖于数字运算,还应当考虑多种因素并予以权衡,同时综合运用各种市场化或非市场化工具。中国在建立健全生态保护市场体系的过程中,应当把握生态系统服务市场化工具通过生态系统服务货币化和商品化解决环境外部性问题这一实质,理解缓解银行、生态系统服务付费、反向拍卖、生态标签和生态认证等典型市场化工具的运行机理,明确生态系统服务市场化工具适用的前提和规则,更好地发挥市场化工具的积极功效,从而实现特定的环境政策目标。     

关于生态补偿标准和机制

生态补偿项目的成本是确定生态补偿标准的基础.在生态补偿项目评估中,全面、准确地计算损失者的直接成本、机会成本和发展成本比生态服务价值评估远为重要.生态补偿没有统一标准,最终结果取决于生态补偿项目中受损者和得益者双方的谈判能力.因此,动员各利益相关者参与能更准确地制定生态补偿标准,保护那些实实在在提供生态服务或遭受外部性损失的基层农民的利益;同时还可以充分利用地方性技术和制度知识,提高项目效益,监督项目管理者,减少寻租行为.生态补偿机制除政府和市场补偿外,还应包括社区内部补偿.在政府补偿中,中央和地方政府的分工是不同的.财政分权理论表明,由地方政府负责实施生态补偿是有效率的.因为地方政府更接近社会,更了解当地居民的偏好.     

水源涵养林生态产权与水文生态服务价值实现:基于讨价还价博弈

随着经济社会的发展,水源地保护和流域上下游利益均衡问题日益突出。集中体现是经济社会发展面临水资源短缺问题,而水源地缺乏环境行为意愿对水源涵养林进行保护。环境行为意愿问题折射了现行水源涵养林产权制度的缺陷:生态产权缺失使得水文生态服务外部性无法内部化,导致了生态治理中的市场失灵。由此,文章围绕水源涵养林生态产权展开,通过分析水文生态服务的地理运动判别其外部性的作用区域,进而明确水文生态服务的供给者和需求者。基于产权细分理论,将水源涵养林的产权分为生态产权和经济产权。生态产权的有效分离形成了水文生态服务市场,水文生态服务价值通过产权流转实现。在分析中指出,水源涵养林的所有者是文水生态服务的供给者,水库是水文生态服务的需求者;在市场交易模式下,二者关于价格的分歧,可以通过不断协商,达成合作与共识。着眼于此,本文基于讨价还价博弈理论,建立不完全信息动态博弈模型研究水文生态服务供给者和需求者的讨价还价活动,使用MATLAB软件,以国家森林资源连续清查统计为主要数据,以陕西省为例对水库汇流区农户和水库的博弈过程进行仿真模拟,结果表明:引入政府奖励作为激励机制能够将谈判双方的保留价格揭示出来。基于此,本文提出通过建立生态产权制度完善水源涵养林的生态补偿机制,即明晰生态产权,消除交易对象模糊不清引起的争议;赋予产权人自由交易的权益,通过流转交换实现产权权益;引入激励机制,形成价格信息揭示直接机制。本文进一步提出政府应通过对市场主体的规制和完善相关法律体系、资金保障体系、监管评估体系,来保障水文生态服务市场的有效运行。     

地方政府土地出让策略互动行为的检验及其影响分析

本文以山东省设区市地方政府土地出让行为作为研究对象,通过构建空间面板模型,从价格和数量两个维度,全面检验了地方政府商服、住宅、工业用地出让的策略互动行为,并利用空间计量工具,分析了地方政府土地出让策略互动行为的影响。研究发现:(1)山东省内地方政府商服、住宅、工业用地出让价格以及工业用地出让量存在显著的策略互动,地方政府的商服、住宅、工业用地出让价格以及工业用地出让量,不仅会受城市自身情况的约束,还会受邻近地区地方政府土地出让行为的影响,外在表现为你涨我跌、你增我减的反向变动格局;(2)由于未考虑策略互动,传统计量经济学非空间面板模型对地方政府土地出让行为影响因素的估计普遍存在偏误。对于商服用地出让价格,第三产业比重、人口密度的影响分别被低估了33.33%、13.08%;对于住宅用地出让价格,人口城镇化率、人均可支配收入的影响分别被低估了20.00%、9.98%,人口密度的影响被高估了32.34%;对于工业用地出让价格,人均外商直接投资的影响被高估了3.68%;对于工业用地出让量,第二产业比重、地均工业产值的影响分别被高估了13.95%、31.36%;(3)地方政府土地出让行为的影响因素普遍存在明显的空间溢出效应。对于商服用地出让价格,具有空间溢出效应的影响因素为人口密度;对于住宅用地出让价格,具有空间溢出效应的影响因素为人口城镇化率、人口密度、人均可支配收入;对于工业用地出让价格,具有空间溢出效应的影响因素为人均外商直接投资、地均固定资产投资;对于工业用地出让量,具有空间溢出效应的影响因素为第二产业比重、地均固定资产投资。     

水污染治理的微分博弈及策略研究

随着水污染态势的日益加剧,急需改变原有的政府考核机制,树立生态文明建设的新政绩观。在生态文明考核的视角下,考虑到河流中污染量变化影响,本文构建了基于连续时间的政府与企业水污染治理微分博弈模型,并获得了一组反馈纳什均衡解,得出了相对于生态文明环保政绩考核重要性的企业污染物产量下降梯度和政府治污努力上升梯度。分析表明:企业的均衡污染物产量与生态文明环保政绩考核重要性水平负相关;政府的均衡治污努力与生态文明环保政绩考核重要性水平正相关;企业的均衡污染物产量与单位排污费负相关;降低企业的生产成本、减排成本,加大对不法排污企业的处罚力度,均可提高控污效果;制定合理的地方政府生态文明环保政绩奖惩制度,可提高其治污努力程度。此外,本文还运用数值仿真,验证了生态文明环保政绩考核的重要性水平与企业的污染物产量和政府的治污努力的关系。最后提出有效解决河流污染问题的相关对策措施:从考核的分配公平维度、程序公平维度和互动公平维度来构建合理的生态文明环保政绩考核机制,并提高生态文明指标在政府政绩考核中的权重;构建合理的生态文明环保政绩奖惩机制,该机制与地方政府的政治利益、经济利益挂钩,也与官员的个人利益、地方政府利益和部门利益、政府组织的整体利益挂钩;建立企业排污行为奖惩机制,包括对企业超标排放的处罚和对积极实行减排技术创新、清洁生产企业的奖励,制定合理的排污费的收取标准;增强自主创新能力,降低企业的生产成本、减排成本;提高政府环境保护工作能力,降低政府的治污工程成本和管理成本。     

生态产品的概念、分类及其市场化供给机制

生态产品是指维持生命支持系统、保障生态调节功能、提供环境舒适性的自然要素。物质产品、文化产品和生态产品是支撑现代人类生存和发展的三类产品。生态产品的生产是一种专业性的社会生产活动,要充分认识到生态要素本身所具有的价值以及为了生产生态产品所必需的投入。生态产品可以具体分为全国性、区域或流域性、社区性公共生态产品和"私人"生态产品。生态产品的市场化供给方式主要包括:①直接市场的经济交易。通过生态产品的产权界定,可以将其转变成私人产品,并通过直接市场的经济交易实现供给,例如碳排放权交易、排污权交易、水权交易、林权交易等。②生态资本产业化经营。生态产品是一种能够带来经济和社会效益的生态资源,即是一种生态资本,尤其是能够提供环境舒适性的自然生态系统。生态资本产业化经营是实现生态产品价值的现实手段,合同外包和特许经营等都是一种常用的产业化经营方式。③生态购买。是指政府部门与市场主体签订合同或协议后,由后者生产某方面的生态产品,政府来负责监督合同的履行,并向后者支付费用,它是通过政府购买的形式购买市场主体生产的生态产品。为了保障生态产品市场化供给的有效运行,政府应完善与其相对应的法律体系和制度安排,具体包括:明确生态产权并降低交易费用;合理构建各相关主体的利益关系;建立各个层次的生态产品市场交易体系;对生态产品的市场供给进行有效监督等。     

生态补偿的概念、标准及政府的作用——基于人类活动对生态系统作用类型分析

将人类活动对生态系统的作用分为10种可能的类型,其中,未引起生态系统服务变化的人类活动、生态系统破坏行为、不可更新资源开发利用及对具有非公共物品属性的生态系统服务的开发利用不属于生态补偿的范畴。生态补偿通过调节对具有公共物品或准公共物品属性的生态系统服务的作用过程中相关方的利益关系,实现外部效应内部化,以可持续提供生态系统服务。理论上,受损者依据其受损的成本和生态系统服务价值获得补偿;受益者依据其开发生态系统服务的获利或其享用的额外的生态系统服务价值而付费。其中,生态系统服务价值的计算应从总的生态系统服务价值量中区分存量价值和增量价值,从增量价值中区分自然资本和人造资本,从人造资本中提取出外部性价值;受损成本包括直接成本、机会成本和发展成本。实践中往往通过利益相关方的谈判确定最终补偿标准。政府的介入显著提高了生态补偿的运行效率,降低了交易成本,保障了公平和谐,但政府不是生态补偿的利益相关方。政府站在利益相关方之外,有利于更好地发挥政府在生态补偿中的职能,促进生态补偿高质量、高效率地实施。     

基于Zipf方法的中美天然气价格行为研究

在低碳经济转型升级、资源环境约束趋紧的新常态下,天然气在我国能源结构中的重要性日益凸显,而近些年美国页岩气革命对全球油气供需格局产生了巨大冲击,引发了全球关注。为此,本文运用Zipf方法刻画中美两国天然气价格的动力学行为,并开展比较分析。结果表明:首先,中、美天然气价格行为均是非对称的。在中国市场,大体上天然气价格长期看涨的概率更高;在美国市场,温和型投资者在5. 5 a的投资时间标度内看涨天然气价格,超过5. 5 a则认为天然气价格随机波动,而贪婪型投资者长期看涨天然气价格。其次,投资者的投资时间标度和预期收益均会对中、美天然气价格行为产生影响。时间标度越大,中、美天然气价格看涨的概率越大;预期收益越大,其对天然气价格行为的扭曲越大,但若预期收益收敛至临界点,就不会再扭曲天然气价格行为。最后,中国天然气市场的两类投资者以及美国天然气市场的温和型投资者对市场认知的分歧主要都源于价格的涨跌幅度和涨跌时机,而不是涨跌本身。然后,我们为中美天然气市场投资者提出几点建议:在中国市场,温和型投资者可以一直持有天然气资产,而贪婪型投资者可以继续买入并持有天然气资产。在美国市场,温和型投资者在一个季度内可以买入当天和卖出期限不足一个季度的天然气期货合约,在一个季度至5. 5 a内可以卖出天然气资产,超过5. 5 a后投资者无论做空还是做多都有可能获益;贪婪型投资者可以买入并长期持有天然气资产。这些结果有助于认识中美两国天然气市场不同行为主体的交易行为,以及规避天然气价格的极端波动。     

生态脆弱地区的区域外部性及其可持续发展

脆弱的生态环境与区域贫困是我国生态脆弱地区最本质的特征。在国家的区域协调发展战略下,生态脆弱地区的可持续发展不单是其自身的问题,而是一个中央政府和地方政府、区域之间关系的问题。本文在凝练我国生态脆弱地区主要特征的基础上,着重分析了生态脆弱地区所遭遇到的区域外部性问题,即无约束条件下的消极外部性(环境影响)和限制开发条件下所产生的积极外部性(生态服务)。在国家区域协调战略下,由于区域外部性的客观存在,会使生态脆弱地区面临利益失衡,即产业限制导致的发展权力剥夺,人口迁移导致的公共服务流失和承担生态服务的成本。在此基础上探讨了生态脆弱地区可持续发展的思路和国家的政策取向,指出建立完善的区域生态补偿制度是其中的关键问题,并对基本公共服务均等化、人口迁移等具体的区域生态补偿途径展开讨论。     

WSSD 2002, Latin America and Brazil: Biodiversity and Indigenous People

Latin America comprehends notable variations in terms of natural environment, availability of natural resources, living standards, and demographic patterns. Latin America is a mosaic of cultures, post- and pre-Columbian. The rich variety of life forms discovered and described by chroniclers and traveling naturalists in the Neotropics contributed to the proposal, in mid-XVIIIth century, of a new system of classification and a scientific code of nomenclature for all organisms. Biodiversity was, for many centuries, a source of resources to be exploited in natura. In scientific circles, its inventory became the domain of taxonomists. But modern technology showed how important the miriad of life forms really are as sources of chemical molecules to be engineered as drugs and reassembled as novel manufactured products. We are on the brink of a new agricultural and medical revolution, thanks to the techniques of genetic engineering, which will lead eventually to the elimination of hunger and malnutrition.In this essay, the Brazilian environmental and social heterogeneity will serve as an example to illustrate some key points, which have influenced sustainability policies. The Amazon deforestation and indigenous knowledge (IK), subjects often associated with areas of high biodiversity, are usually the focus of environmental debates. The importance of IK in integrating development, reducing poverty and sustainability are considered together with the intellectual property rights of native populations.In the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Implementation Plan, a few paragraphs were dedicated to Latin America, because of the pre-existing Action Platform on the Road to Johannesburg 2002, approved in Rio de Janeiro in October 2001. This paper calls attention to the need to draw up specific environmental policies for a region which shows an extremely high cultural and biological diversity, associated with a high availability of forests and water, among other resources.     

The Phenomenon of Pseudoviviparity in Alpine and Arctomontane Grasses (DeschampsiaBeauv., FestucaL., and PoaL.)

It is known that pseudoviviparous plant taxa are most numerous in the Arctic and high mountain regions, where they sometimes account for a noticeable part of the local flora and play an important phytocenotic role. The complex of pseudoviviparous taxa is an interesting model for investigating the processes of hybridogenic speciation, as various mechanisms stabilizing the hybrid genetic systems proved to be effective in them. In particular, this concerns vast and taxonomically complex groups such as the genera Deschampsia, Festuca, and Poa.In this paper, published data on the taxonomy, chromosome numbers, and distribution of pseudoviviparous grasses in the Arctic regions and subarctic mountain systems are reviewed.     

Conservation, commercialisation and confusion: harvesting of Ischyrolepis in a coastal forest, South Africa

Harvesting of non-timber forest products is an integral component of rural livelihoods throughout the developing world. At times this is at odds with conservation objectives. Reconciliation of the two requires examination of local level contexts and needs. This paper reports on the harvesting needs for Ischyrolepis by a rural community in South Africa, against the setting that they had recently been prohibited from harvesting by the local conservation officials. Interviews were conducted with conservation officials to understand the reasoning for the prohibition. Local demand for Ischyrolepis was assessed by household surveys, as well as in-depth interviews with traders. The density and size class distribution of Ischyrolepis was determined using transects. The total annual demand for Ischyrolepis was determined to be approximately only 2.7% of the standing crop. The bulk of the annual demand was for small-scale trade, the income from which was a primary source of income for the few harvesters. Very little evidence could be found indicating that harvesting was damaging the resource or its habitat, and local knowledge suggested that the abundance of the species was stimulated by harvesting. Even if market demand were to increase, the size of the shoots required means that less than 20% of the standing crop could be harvested annually. Current regulations around harvesting are in a state of revision, and hence confusion prevails regarding if harvesting is permissible, and if so, under what conditions, which is detrimental to both conservation and livelihoods. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Radionuclide content of building materials and associated gamma dose rates in Egyptian dwellings

Studies have been carried out to determine the natural radioactivity in some building materials (bricks, tiles, marble and ceramics) and their associated radiation hazard. The radioactivity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K were measured using a gamma spectrometer with a Hp–Ge detector. The activities of ²³⁸U and ²³⁴U were measured using an alpha-spectrometer with a surface barrier detector after applying a radiochemical procedure. The ²³⁴U/²³⁸U isotopic ratios were calculated. The radium equivalent activities and the radiation hazard index associated with the natural radionuclides were calculated. A computer program was developed and applied to calculate the dose rate a person will receive from the walls of a room constructed from the studied building materials.     

Education for Sustainable Development: The Johannesburg Summit and Beyond

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in Johannesburg during 26 August and 4 September 2002, was a truly remarkable event, not least because it identified and committed the world community to what has to be done to realise Agenda 21 objectives. Discussion begins with the "means of implementation" of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPI). Education for, and raising awareness of, sustainable development are the key commitments in the "means of implementation". The issues central to these commitments are discussed. The crucial role of moral philosophy in education for sustainable development is then discussed. Defining the "problem" as lack of progress (in fact negative progress between Rio and Johannesburg) towards global sustainable development, a cause–effect relationship of the "problem" is developed based on a systematic and logical analysis. It shows that the "cause" is West's profoundly materialistic, environment-degrading and exploitative attitude and activities to satisfy grossly unsustainable, hedonistic and insatiably avaricious Western life-styles – life-styles that are held up by the West as "ideal" fruits of economic "development" to be aspired by all. The "effects" are pollution of air, water and soil; mounting loss of biodiversity, ecosystems and species; relentlessly widening north–south divide, etc. It is argued that while science and technology can address some of the "effects", they cannot address the "cause". Only moral philosophy can by fundamentally re-orienting moral values genuinely to respect nature and the environment. Based on sound and tested principles of Educational Psychology, a proposal is then made for including moral philosophy in the formal curricula (content and pedagogy) of primary, secondary and higher education for instilling in children and young people genuinely environment-respecting moral values. To this end a generic syllabus for the secondary level is proposed. Finally, it is argued that if the scientific community really believes that science or technology alone can radically change the pervasive environment-degrading moral values to those that genuinely respect the environment, thus paving the way to real global sustainability, then it must demonstrate how this could be done and explain why, despite their abundant science and technology, the developed nations are the biggest polluters and consumers with grossly unsustainable life-styles. Certainly, examples would be much more convincing than rhetoric or tired old clichés about how science and technology alone could deliver global sustainable development.     

Do nanoparticles present ecotoxicological risks for the health of the aquatic environment?

Nanotechnology is a major innovative scientific and economic growth area, which may present a variety of hazards for environmental and human health. The surface properties and very small size of nanoparticles and nanotubes provide surfaces that may bind and transport toxic chemical pollutants, as well as possibly being toxic in their own right by generating reactive radicals. There is a wealth of evidence for the harmful effects of nanoscale combustion-derived particulates (ultrafines), which when inhaled can cause a number of pulmonary pathologies in mammals and humans. However, release of manufactured nanoparticles into the aquatic environment is largely an unknown. This review addresses the possible hazards associated with nanomaterials and harmful effects that may result from exposure of aquatic animals to nanoparticles. Possible nanoparticle association with naturally occurring colloids and particles is considered together with how this could affect their bioavailability and uptake into cells and organisms. Uptake by endocytotic routes are identified as probable major mechanisms of entry into cells; potentially leading to various types of toxic cell injury. The higher level consequences for damage to animal health, ecological risk and possible food chain risks for humans are also considered based on known behaviours and toxicities for inhaled and ingested nanoparticles in the terrestrial environment. It is concluded that a precautionary approach is required with individual evaluation of new nanomaterials for risk to the health of the environment. Although current toxicity testing protocols should be generally applicable to identify harmful effects associated with nanoparticles, research into new methods is required to address the special properties of nanomaterials.     

Household water in rural asia: a case study of the construction of a piped water system in Bangui,Ilocos Norte,Philippines

In early 1980 an extension agent was assigned to the rural municipality of Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines to work on development projects – in particular the improvement of the supply of safe water for drinking and sanitation. After many months of visiting spring sites and meeting with community leaders, a small part of the municipality was selected to build a gravity fed piped water system. Although the system took many months to plan, identify funding and construct, the 600 community members were ultimately rewarded with house to house connections that enabled them to achieve per capita water consumption levels above the minimum levels recommended by the World Health Organization. Of course, money was critical to ensure the project’s success, but many other factors played an equally critical role. For instance, without the active participation of the community and the unwavering support of the community leadership the project would not have survived the initial planning stage. Also, the extension agent played a critical role by acting as a conduit between funding agencies, the Bureau of Public Works and the community. The primary lesson to be learned from this experience is that the success of rural development projects is largely driven by the synergy between the community, technical support, financial support, and agents of change such as extension agents. If any of these ingredients had been lacking, the project result would likely have been far different.