中国贸易隐含污染转移研究

本文基于WIOD、UNCTAD数据库,以8种污染物作为污染排放指标,构建了中国及其主要贸易伙伴国之间的环境多区域投入产出(MRIO)模型,并测算了中国贸易隐含污染净出口量及双边贸易污染转移量,继而引入贸易污染条件分析双边贸易对中国及其贸易伙伴国的不同影响。结果表明:中国在观察期(2000—2011年)内均为贸易隐含污染净出口国,且贸易隐含碳净出口量先升后降,而贸易隐含其他污染物净出口量却逐年递增。2011年中国基于生产端核算污染排放总量达685.69亿t,基于消费端核算污染排放量为635.50亿t,贸易隐含污染净出口总量达50.19亿t;双边贸易污染转移中中国成为了发达国家的"污染天堂"。2011年美国、欧盟、日本通过贸易向中国分别净转移污染物总量分别达到26 464.48万t、40 837.45万t、8 001.19万t,但中国与亚洲其他地区之间并不存在单向污染转移关系。中美、中欧、中日之间的贸易污染条件介于0.95~61.89之间,即双边贸易在恶化中国环境的同时对促进美国、欧盟、日本环境的改善作用明显,中国与亚洲其他地区之间的贸易污染条件介于0.40~6.41之间,因而双边贸易对中国和亚洲其他地区的环境影响并不确定。中国与任何伙伴国之间采掘业、电力煤气供应业等行业的贸易均严重增加了国内污染物排放。意味着:一方面,限制"两高一资"产品的出口等政策已改善了中国贸易隐含碳排放,但未对贸易隐含其他污染物排放产生作用;另一方面,中国不仅需要提高资源密集行业生产技术绿色化程度,更要严格控制这类行业的进出口贸易。     

中国进出口贸易中的隐含碳估算

采用投入产出法。估算了1997-2006年中国进出口贸易中的隐含碳。对进出口商品都采用中国的碳耗水平所作的保守估计发现：1997-2006年，通过产品的形式，我国为国外排放了大量的碳，1997-2004年。隐含碳净出口占当年碳排放总量的比倒在0．5％-2．7％之间,2004年之后迅速增加。2006年该数字达10％左右。按照日本的碳耗效率对进口产品进行调整后的乐观估计发现。中国为j国该外转移排放的碳数量更为惊人。1997-2002年隐含碳净出口量占当年碳排放总量的12％～14％。2002年之后迅速增加，到2006年，该数字已达29.28％。作为生产者和消费者，中国和其出口国都是这些碳排放的受益者，都应该对气候变化负责。一味对中国增长的碳排放进行指责是不全面的。     

基于LMDI方法的中国国际贸易隐含碳分解

对国际贸易产生环境影响的定量研究正日益受到关注,特别是对隐含碳的研究.以中国2005年为例,对中国国际贸易隐含碳进行估算,应用对数平均D氏指数法(LMDI)对影响隐含碳净转移的因素进行分解分析.结果显示中国因生产排放碳量远大于其消费需要排放的碳量,从国外净转移到中国的隐含碳为395.66MtC;净转移隐含碳影响因素中强度效应(进出口商品完全碳排放系数差异)贡献率为60%,规模效应(进出额差异)贡献率为55%,结构效应(进出口结构差异)贡献率为-14%,此结果表明中国相比国外的高碳排放强度是造成目前碳转移额外增加的主要因素,分析结构效应发现中国主要净出口行业大部分不是高碳排放强度行业,而净进口行业却主要由高碳排放强度行业构成,特别是与碳排放密切相关的能源行业居净进口行业首位.     

中国进出口贸易中的隐含能估算

采用投入产出法。估算了1997-2006年中国进出口贸易中的隐含能。在考虑隐含能和进出口能源产品的情况下，都按我国的能耗效率对进出口进行的保守估计发现：1997-2006年，我国的能源进出口基本持平．其中1999-2005年是一个微弱的能源净进口国，而1997。1998和2006年却是能源净出口国；按照日本的能耗效率对进口产品进行调整后的乐观估计发现中国则是一个更大的能源净出口国，每年能源净出口量在10000-50000万t标煤之间，其中1997-2002年我国能源净出口量占当年能源消费总量的10％左右。之后该数字迅速增长，2006年更高达18．8％。可见我国进口的能源（包括进口产品中的隐含能）又以出口产品的形式输出到了国外。从能源净消费的角度看我国并没有多消费世界上其他国家的能源。虽然我国近年来能源产品进口增加较快，但我国快速增长的净出口使这些能源又“隐含”在产品中离开了中国。     

增加值视角下中国省域净碳转移权责分配

碳排放核算及碳排放权地区分配,是提升应对气候变化基础能力和建设生态文明社会的关键。利用中国多区域投入产出数据和MRIO模型,从价值链渠道层面揭示了省域净碳转移方向及根源;基于国家价值链理论,对国内省域产品流出增加值进行分解,以省内增加值占比为分担因子,提出了中国省域净碳转移责任分担标准。研究发现:(1)2015年中国各省份生产侧和消费侧碳排放存在显著差异,中间产品和最终需求调出、调入隐含碳是省域碳转移的主要原因。(2)中国通过对外贸易存在净碳转移,国内经济发达省份通过国内贸易对欠发达省份存在净碳转移;西北、东部沿海区域分别是国内最大净碳转入、转出地区。(3)省域间国内净碳转移应由碳转入地和转出地共同承担,净碳转出省份应增加碳排放责任,而净碳转入省份应减少碳排放责任;省域碳转入责任分担由流出贸易隐含碳及省域流出贸易本地获益能力决定,而碳转出责任分担由流入贸易隐含碳及省域贸易来源地获益能力决定。该研究对制定地区差异化碳减排政策、完善考虑碳转移的省域碳排放核算方案及全国性碳排放权交易体系构建等具有一定政策启示。     

IPCC框架下木质林产品碳储核算研究进展:方法选择及关联利益

木质林产品的碳储功能可有效降低大气中二氧化碳的浓度,其碳储量核算已被纳入气候变化缔约国温室气体清单报告,各国基于CBDR原则对木质林产品的碳储计量及贸易流动核算方法学在国家层面的争议及协调,关系到未来在气候变化谈判中的减排责任分配及利益分享。本文首先概括了IPCC历次会议关联木质林产品碳储核算议题及谈判进程,纵向梳理了碳储计量问题的研究进展。其次,对比不同国家和地区关于核算方法的应用及争议,总结不同核算方法在各国间的适用情况及其关联利益。最后,从清单报告和国际贸易角度分析了生产法与储量变化法对林产品碳储计量的不同影响,归纳了不同角度下两种核算方法的适用属性。研究表明:1缔约国附件Ⅰ国家在第二协议期内报告本国木质林产品的碳储量及其变化,在假设本国木质林产品碳储贡献不为零时采用生产法核算碳储量,核算源于本国采伐木的产品碳收支已成为当前缔约国履行气候责任的基本要求;2从清单报告的角度,缔约国基于森林管理参考水平报告碳储量,生产法区别森林管理活动并核算源于可持续森林经营管理的木质林产品碳储量,符合报告的要求;3从国际贸易角度,对于中国等涉及林产品国际贸易的净进口国,储量变化法因考虑到进出口的碳计量,以储量变化法核算碳储量对中国等林产品贸易大国更具优势。     

隐含在计算机产品国际贸易中的碳排放流动

本文采用生命周期评价方法,从产品的角度,分析了高能耗产品计算机在国际贸易中的隐含碳排放及转移情况。分析了计算机贸易中的主要的进出口地区在2002-2013年期间由于计算机贸易导致的隐含碳排放情况。2003后年中国开始取代台湾省成为计算机贸易中隐含碳最大的输入地区,且其隐含碳输入量逐年增长很快。最大的计算机贸易隐含碳流也从2002年的美国到台湾省变成2013年的从美国到中国。从减排温室气体公平与效率双赢的角度考虑,中国和其主要贸易伙伴都用采取积极政策达到减排碳的目标。     

中国及“一带一路”沿线典型国家贸易隐含碳转移研究

贸易将生产和消费连接起来,商品消费地可通过产品的跨地区调入,将与生产相关的碳排放与实际消费相分离,产生贸易中隐含碳排放转移的问题。本文基于多区域投入产出方法(MRIO),采用投入产出链接技术,将中国降尺度到30个省份(含4个直辖市),建立了"区域-国家-全球"多级尺度嵌套模型及相应的环境卫星矩阵数据库,评估了中国各区域及中国对"一带一路"沿线典型国家商品和服务贸易中的碳排放,并对双边贸易隐含碳排放的区域和行业流向进行分析。研究发现,中国在与"一带一路"沿线典型国家进行贸易时,国内生产碳排放大于国内消费碳排放,是隐含碳净出口国,属于隐含碳的"国内承担、国外消费"模式。韩国、印度是中国隐含碳的主要出口国家,俄罗斯是主要隐含碳进口国。在中国内部,沿海、东北、内陆、西北及西南地区的进出口贸易隐含碳依次减少,隐含碳排放平衡性具有区域差异性。中国对"一带一路"沿线典型国家贸易隐含碳行业结构的分析结果显示,公用事业(电力、热力和燃气)是最大的隐含碳净出口部门,建筑业是最大的隐含碳净进口部门。研究结果识别了中国与"一带一路"沿线国家贸易隐含碳排放的关键地区和关键部门,可为宏观层面制定低碳策略提供定量决策和理论支持。     

基于碳排放权价值的中国省域绿色贸易利益测度北大核心CSCDCSSCI

作为碳排放大国和出口强国,中国获得贸易顺差的背后是生产出口产品所带来的巨量碳排放。科学测算碳排放导致的价值损失,对“双碳”目标下的绿色发展具有重要意义。该研究通过构建嵌入式多区域投入产出表,从双边贸易层面和行业层面,分析中国30个省份进出口贸易隐含碳的现状,并利用碳排放权价值测算各省份对外贸易的环境净损失;在增加值贸易利益的基础上,进一步考察中国省域绿色贸易利益。研究表明,从双边贸易层面看,中国省域出口贸易隐含碳主要由美国和欧盟转入,进口贸易隐含碳主要向巴西、俄罗斯、印度、印度尼西亚、墨西哥和土耳其转出。对东盟贸易隐含碳占比较大的省份主要位于西南地区,对BRIIMT贸易隐含碳占比较大的省份主要位于北部地区,对日韩贸易隐含碳占比较大的省份主要位于东部地区。从行业层面看,出口贸易隐含碳集中在制造业和电热生产供应业,占比之和超过70%,且各省份的行业结构具有一定差异性。进口贸易隐含碳集中在电热生产供应业和运输业,占比之和约63%。引入碳排放权价值后,中国30省份的绿色贸易利益相比于增加值贸易利益减少0.94%。作为隐含碳净出口国,中国有28个省份在对外贸易中承担环境净损失。其中新疆和甘肃环境净损失的比重最高,分别为69.29%和57.43%。天津、吉林等7个省份在损失增加值贸易利益的同时,还承担着净出口贸易隐含碳带来的环境污染。针对结论,该研究提出大力发展清洁能源、省域间差异化减排、优化对外贸易结构的建议。     

基于投入产出法的中国出口产品隐含碳测算

使用投入产出法,利用1999 -2008年中国海关货物出口商品分类数据,研究和测算了中国出口商品中的隐含碳.研究结果显示,中国是隐含碳的出口大国,出口贸易是中国CO2排放量逐年增长的重要原因.1999 - 2008年,我国出口产品中的隐含碳由1999年的3.8亿t上升至2008年的11.9亿t,在此期间,中国CO2年排放量的12％ -24％是因生产满足国际市场消费的产品而产生的.中国出口产品中的隐含碳主要集中在5大类行业,分别为:纺织业及服装鞋帽制造业、化学医药制造业、黑色及有色金属冶炼和压延加工业、通用及专用机械设备、电气机械及器材制造业.这5大类行业的出口产品中的隐含碳在中国出口产品的隐含碳总量中占到80％左右.中国出口产品隐含碳的主要流向是美国、欧盟和日本.在实证研究结果的基础上,本文认为国际社会应从生产者负责制和消费者负责制相结合的角度界定各国的碳排放责任和减排目标；同时建议我国应提高生产技术,降低产品的能源消耗强度,并限制能源密集型产业产品的出口.     

WSSD 2002, Latin America and Brazil: Biodiversity and Indigenous People

Latin America comprehends notable variations in terms of natural environment, availability of natural resources, living standards, and demographic patterns. Latin America is a mosaic of cultures, post- and pre-Columbian. The rich variety of life forms discovered and described by chroniclers and traveling naturalists in the Neotropics contributed to the proposal, in mid-XVIIIth century, of a new system of classification and a scientific code of nomenclature for all organisms. Biodiversity was, for many centuries, a source of resources to be exploited in natura. In scientific circles, its inventory became the domain of taxonomists. But modern technology showed how important the miriad of life forms really are as sources of chemical molecules to be engineered as drugs and reassembled as novel manufactured products. We are on the brink of a new agricultural and medical revolution, thanks to the techniques of genetic engineering, which will lead eventually to the elimination of hunger and malnutrition.In this essay, the Brazilian environmental and social heterogeneity will serve as an example to illustrate some key points, which have influenced sustainability policies. The Amazon deforestation and indigenous knowledge (IK), subjects often associated with areas of high biodiversity, are usually the focus of environmental debates. The importance of IK in integrating development, reducing poverty and sustainability are considered together with the intellectual property rights of native populations.In the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Implementation Plan, a few paragraphs were dedicated to Latin America, because of the pre-existing Action Platform on the Road to Johannesburg 2002, approved in Rio de Janeiro in October 2001. This paper calls attention to the need to draw up specific environmental policies for a region which shows an extremely high cultural and biological diversity, associated with a high availability of forests and water, among other resources.     

The Phenomenon of Pseudoviviparity in Alpine and Arctomontane Grasses (DeschampsiaBeauv., FestucaL., and PoaL.)

It is known that pseudoviviparous plant taxa are most numerous in the Arctic and high mountain regions, where they sometimes account for a noticeable part of the local flora and play an important phytocenotic role. The complex of pseudoviviparous taxa is an interesting model for investigating the processes of hybridogenic speciation, as various mechanisms stabilizing the hybrid genetic systems proved to be effective in them. In particular, this concerns vast and taxonomically complex groups such as the genera Deschampsia, Festuca, and Poa.In this paper, published data on the taxonomy, chromosome numbers, and distribution of pseudoviviparous grasses in the Arctic regions and subarctic mountain systems are reviewed.     

Conservation, commercialisation and confusion: harvesting of Ischyrolepis in a coastal forest, South Africa

Harvesting of non-timber forest products is an integral component of rural livelihoods throughout the developing world. At times this is at odds with conservation objectives. Reconciliation of the two requires examination of local level contexts and needs. This paper reports on the harvesting needs for Ischyrolepis by a rural community in South Africa, against the setting that they had recently been prohibited from harvesting by the local conservation officials. Interviews were conducted with conservation officials to understand the reasoning for the prohibition. Local demand for Ischyrolepis was assessed by household surveys, as well as in-depth interviews with traders. The density and size class distribution of Ischyrolepis was determined using transects. The total annual demand for Ischyrolepis was determined to be approximately only 2.7% of the standing crop. The bulk of the annual demand was for small-scale trade, the income from which was a primary source of income for the few harvesters. Very little evidence could be found indicating that harvesting was damaging the resource or its habitat, and local knowledge suggested that the abundance of the species was stimulated by harvesting. Even if market demand were to increase, the size of the shoots required means that less than 20% of the standing crop could be harvested annually. Current regulations around harvesting are in a state of revision, and hence confusion prevails regarding if harvesting is permissible, and if so, under what conditions, which is detrimental to both conservation and livelihoods. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Radionuclide content of building materials and associated gamma dose rates in Egyptian dwellings

Studies have been carried out to determine the natural radioactivity in some building materials (bricks, tiles, marble and ceramics) and their associated radiation hazard. The radioactivity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K were measured using a gamma spectrometer with a Hp–Ge detector. The activities of ²³⁸U and ²³⁴U were measured using an alpha-spectrometer with a surface barrier detector after applying a radiochemical procedure. The ²³⁴U/²³⁸U isotopic ratios were calculated. The radium equivalent activities and the radiation hazard index associated with the natural radionuclides were calculated. A computer program was developed and applied to calculate the dose rate a person will receive from the walls of a room constructed from the studied building materials.     

Education for Sustainable Development: The Johannesburg Summit and Beyond

The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in Johannesburg during 26 August and 4 September 2002, was a truly remarkable event, not least because it identified and committed the world community to what has to be done to realise Agenda 21 objectives. Discussion begins with the "means of implementation" of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPI). Education for, and raising awareness of, sustainable development are the key commitments in the "means of implementation". The issues central to these commitments are discussed. The crucial role of moral philosophy in education for sustainable development is then discussed. Defining the "problem" as lack of progress (in fact negative progress between Rio and Johannesburg) towards global sustainable development, a cause–effect relationship of the "problem" is developed based on a systematic and logical analysis. It shows that the "cause" is West's profoundly materialistic, environment-degrading and exploitative attitude and activities to satisfy grossly unsustainable, hedonistic and insatiably avaricious Western life-styles – life-styles that are held up by the West as "ideal" fruits of economic "development" to be aspired by all. The "effects" are pollution of air, water and soil; mounting loss of biodiversity, ecosystems and species; relentlessly widening north–south divide, etc. It is argued that while science and technology can address some of the "effects", they cannot address the "cause". Only moral philosophy can by fundamentally re-orienting moral values genuinely to respect nature and the environment. Based on sound and tested principles of Educational Psychology, a proposal is then made for including moral philosophy in the formal curricula (content and pedagogy) of primary, secondary and higher education for instilling in children and young people genuinely environment-respecting moral values. To this end a generic syllabus for the secondary level is proposed. Finally, it is argued that if the scientific community really believes that science or technology alone can radically change the pervasive environment-degrading moral values to those that genuinely respect the environment, thus paving the way to real global sustainability, then it must demonstrate how this could be done and explain why, despite their abundant science and technology, the developed nations are the biggest polluters and consumers with grossly unsustainable life-styles. Certainly, examples would be much more convincing than rhetoric or tired old clichés about how science and technology alone could deliver global sustainable development.     

Do nanoparticles present ecotoxicological risks for the health of the aquatic environment?

Nanotechnology is a major innovative scientific and economic growth area, which may present a variety of hazards for environmental and human health. The surface properties and very small size of nanoparticles and nanotubes provide surfaces that may bind and transport toxic chemical pollutants, as well as possibly being toxic in their own right by generating reactive radicals. There is a wealth of evidence for the harmful effects of nanoscale combustion-derived particulates (ultrafines), which when inhaled can cause a number of pulmonary pathologies in mammals and humans. However, release of manufactured nanoparticles into the aquatic environment is largely an unknown. This review addresses the possible hazards associated with nanomaterials and harmful effects that may result from exposure of aquatic animals to nanoparticles. Possible nanoparticle association with naturally occurring colloids and particles is considered together with how this could affect their bioavailability and uptake into cells and organisms. Uptake by endocytotic routes are identified as probable major mechanisms of entry into cells; potentially leading to various types of toxic cell injury. The higher level consequences for damage to animal health, ecological risk and possible food chain risks for humans are also considered based on known behaviours and toxicities for inhaled and ingested nanoparticles in the terrestrial environment. It is concluded that a precautionary approach is required with individual evaluation of new nanomaterials for risk to the health of the environment. Although current toxicity testing protocols should be generally applicable to identify harmful effects associated with nanoparticles, research into new methods is required to address the special properties of nanomaterials.     

Household water in rural asia: a case study of the construction of a piped water system in Bangui,Ilocos Norte,Philippines

In early 1980 an extension agent was assigned to the rural municipality of Bangui, Ilocos Norte, Philippines to work on development projects – in particular the improvement of the supply of safe water for drinking and sanitation. After many months of visiting spring sites and meeting with community leaders, a small part of the municipality was selected to build a gravity fed piped water system. Although the system took many months to plan, identify funding and construct, the 600 community members were ultimately rewarded with house to house connections that enabled them to achieve per capita water consumption levels above the minimum levels recommended by the World Health Organization. Of course, money was critical to ensure the project’s success, but many other factors played an equally critical role. For instance, without the active participation of the community and the unwavering support of the community leadership the project would not have survived the initial planning stage. Also, the extension agent played a critical role by acting as a conduit between funding agencies, the Bureau of Public Works and the community. The primary lesson to be learned from this experience is that the success of rural development projects is largely driven by the synergy between the community, technical support, financial support, and agents of change such as extension agents. If any of these ingredients had been lacking, the project result would likely have been far different.