Characterization of municipal solid waste from the main landfills of Havana city

The city of Havana, the political, administrative and cultural centre of Cuba, is also the centre of many of the economic activities of the nation: industries, services, scientific research and tourism. All of these activities contribute to the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW), which also impact other Cuban cities. Inadequate handling of waste and the lack of appropriate and efficient solutions for its final disposal and treatment increase the risk and possibility of contamination. The main difficulty in the development of a system of management of MSW lies in the lack of knowledge of the chemical composition of the waste that is generated in the country as a whole, and especially in Havana, where solid waste management decisions are made. The present study characterizes MSW in Havana city during 2004. The Calle 100, Guanabacoa and Ocho Vías landfills were selected for physical-chemical characterization of MSW, as they are the three biggest landfills in the city. A total of 16 indicators were measured, and weather conditions were recorded. As a result, the necessary information regarding the physical-chemical composition of the MSW became available for the first time in Cuba. The information is essential for making decisions regarding the management of waste and constitutes a valuable contribution to the Study on Integrated Management Plan of MSW in Havana.     

Prevention of chloridazon and metribuzin pollution using lignin-based formulations

The herbicides chloridazon and metribuzin, identified as groundwater pollutants, were incorporated in lignin-based granules with different sizes to obtain controlled release formulations (CRFs) and reduce water pollution risk. Kinetics release tests in water and soil showed that the release rate of both from CRFs diminished in comparison to technical products. A linear correlation was obtained between the time taken for 50% of the active ingredient to be released (T₅₀) into water and granule size of the CRFs. Besides, a linear correlation was reached between T₅₀ values in water and soil. Mobility experiments carried out in calcareous soil show that the use of lignin-based CRFs reduces the presence of both herbicides in the leachate compared to the technical grade products. The set of experiments developed in this research can be useful to design, prepare and evaluate formulations with CR properties which can reduce the pollution derived from the use of herbicides.     

Combined effects of soil moisture and carbaryl to earthworms and plants: simulation of flood and drought scenarios

Studying tolerance limits in organisms exposed to climatic variations is key to understanding effects on behaviour and physiology. The presence of pollutants may influence these tolerance limits, by altering the toxicity or bioavailability of the chemical. In this work, the plant species Brassica rapa and Triticum aestivum and the earthworm Eisenia andrei were exposed to different levels of soil moisture and carbaryl, as natural and chemical stressors, respectively. Both stress factors were tested individually, as well as in combination. Acute and chronic tests were performed and results were discussed in order to evaluate the responses of organisms to the combination of stressors. When possible, data was fitted to widely employed models for describing chemical mixture responses. Synergistic interactions were observed in earthworms exposed to carbaryl and drought conditions, while antagonistic interactions were more representative for plants, especially in relation to biomass loss under flood-simulation conditions.     

Water Footprint of 65 Mid‐ to Large‐Sized U.S. Cities and Their Metropolitan Areas

Conventional indicators of water use for urban areas account primarily for direct water use. In contrast, our objective here is to employ the water footprint (WF) concept and methodology to include the virtual or indirect water use to assess the production‐side and consumption‐side WF of 65 United States (U.S.) cities. The 65 cities include the largest metropolitan areas and some of the major mid‐sized cities in the U.S. We use metropolitan areas to define our city boundaries as this is the native spatial resolution of the main datasets used. To estimate the urban WFs, we integrated large and disparate datasets, including commodity flow (agricultural, livestock, and industrial commodities), water use, and socioeconomic data. By analyzing the estimated WF values, we found indirect water use accounts on average for 66% of the WF of consumption. We found some cities are net virtual water exporters (11 of 65) because they rely heavily on direct water uses or are heavy producers of industrial commodities. Also, WF patterns vary widely across the U.S. but regional patterns seem to emerge. For example, the dense cities of the U.S. northeast megaregion have a significantly low per capita WF relative to the other cities, while cities in the Gulf Coast megaregion have a significantly higher industrial WF of production and consumption. Furthermore, there is inequality in the WF of consumption where a few cities account for a disproportionate share of the total U.S. urban water uses.     

Health risks of environmental exposure to metals and herbicides in the Pardo River,Brazil

Mixture of metals and herbicides in rivers may pose relevant risks for the health of surrounding communities. Humans may be exposed to river pollution through intake of contaminated water and fish, as well as irrigated agricultural products. The aim of this study was to assess the human health risks of environmental exposure to metals and herbicides through water and fish intake in the Pardo River. Metals (Al, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Mn, Hg, Ni, Tl, Sn, V, and Zn) were analyzed in river water and in edible fish. Herbicides (ametryn, atrazine, diuron, hexazinone, simazine, and tebuthiuron) were analyzed in river water. Seasonal variances were also studied. Aluminum, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, and Zn levels in river water were higher than the USEPA benchmarks. Non-carcinogenic risks due to pollutants mixture exposure were above the limit, and carcinogenic risks of As exposure were >10^?6 in the sampling points during the rainy season. Metal levels in fish were lower than the Brazilian legislation and do not pose a threat to public health. Herbicides were detected in four sampling points, with atrazine concentrations (range 0.16–0.32 μg/L) below the Brazilian standard (2.0 μg/L), but above the European Union standard (0.1 μg/L). Considering the water supply needs of cities located in the Pardo River Basin and the persistence of metals and herbicides, the present study indicated that there was a seasonal influence on non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks to human health, especially in the rainy season. Studies for water treatment plants implantation should consider the risks of exposure to persistent substances, in order to protect the population.     

All Fish for China?

In this paper we examine the effect of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on the level of fish intake in China in comparison with the rest of the world. We also analyse the origin and destination of China’s seafood products in order to understand the main patterns during the last decades. The results show that in the 1961–2011 period the rate of growth of the GDP in China doubled that of other developing regions, while the daily fish intake of China increased fourfold, making China the largest fish consumer in the world. Given the size and scale of China’s role in production, consumption, and global transformation of seafood markets, China is shaping a new era of industrialization in the history of the fishing industry.     

Impact of three interactive Texas state regulatory programs to decrease ambient air toxic levels

The Federal Clean Air Act (FCAA) framework envisions a federal-state partnership whereby the development of regulations may be at the federal level or state level with federal oversight. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes National Ambient Air Quality Standards to describe “safe” ambient levels of criteria pollutants. For air toxics, the EPA establishes control technology standards for the 187 listed hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) but does not establish ambient standards for HAPs or other air toxics. Thus, states must ensure that ambient concentrations are not at harmful levels. The Texas Clean Air Act authorizes the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ), the Texas state environmental agency, to control air pollution and protect public health and welfare. The TCEQ employs three interactive programs to ensure that concentrations of air toxics do not exceed levels of potential health concern (LOCs): air permitting, ambient air monitoring, and the Air Pollutant Watch List (APWL). Comprehensive air permit reviews involve the application of best available control technology for new and modified equipment and ensure that permits protect public health and welfare. Protectiveness may be demonstrated by a number of means, including a demonstration that the predicted ground-level concentrations for the permitted emissions, evaluated on a case-by-case and chemical-by-chemical basis, do not cause or contribute to a LOC. The TCEQ's ambient air monitoring program is extensive and provides data to help assess the potential for adverse effects from all operational equipment in an area. If air toxics are persistently monitored at a LOC, an APWL area is established. The purpose of the APWL is to reduce ambient air toxic concentrations below LOCs by focusing TCEQ resources and heightening awareness. This paper will discuss examples of decreases in air toxic levels in Houston and Corpus Christi, Texas, resulting from the interactive nature of these programs.

Implications: Texas recognized through the collection of ambient monitoring data that additional measures beyond federal regulations must be taken to ensure that public health is protected. Texas integrates comprehensive air permitting, extensive ambient air monitoring, and the Air Pollutant Watch List (APWL) to protect the public from hazardous air toxics. Texas issues air permits that are protective of public health and also assesses ambient air to verify that concentrations remain below levels of concern in heavily industrialized areas. Texas developed the APWL to improve air quality in those areas where monitoring indicates a potential concern. This paper illustrates how Texas engaged its three interactive programs to successfully address elevated air toxic levels in Houston and Corpus Christi.     

Eumelanin-based coloration and fitness parameters in birds: a meta-analysis

Although melanin is the most common pigment in animal integuments, the adaptive function of variation in melanin-based coloration remains poorly understood. The individual fitness returns associated with melanin pigments can be variable across species as these pigments can have physical and biological protective properties and genes involved in melanogenesis may vary in the intensity of pleiotropic effects. Moreover, dark and pale coloration can also enhance camouflage in alternative habitats and melanin-based coloration can be involved in social interactions. We investigated whether darker or paler individuals achieve a higher fitness in birds, a taxon wherein associations between melanin-based coloration and fitness parameters have been studied in a large number of species. A meta-analysis showed that the degree of melanin-based coloration was not significantly associated with laying date, clutch size, brood size, and survival across 26 species. Similar results were found when restricting the analyses to non-sexually dimorphic birds, colour polymorphic and monomorphic species, in passerines and non-passerines and in species for which inter-individual variation in melanism is due to colour intensity. However, eumelanic coloration was positively associated with clutch and brood size in sexually dimorphic species and those that vary in the size of black patches, respectively. Given that greater extent of melanin-based coloration was positively associated with reproductive parameters and survival in some species but negatively in other species, we conclude that in birds the sign and magnitude of selection exerted on melanin-based coloration is species- or trait-specific.     

Habitat use by dusky dolphin in patagonia: how predictable is their location?

Off Patagonian coasts, Argentina, the dusky dolphin is one of the most common small cetaceans. This species is the aim of newly developed watching activities during summer in Golfo Nuevo. However, the real occurrence and movement pattern are unknown. The objectives of this work were to investigate the predictability of dusky dolphin distribution, group structure and behaviour in the western portion of Golfo Nuevo, with respect to environmental features (bottom depth, bottom slope, distance from shore and substrate). Random transects in the bay were searched by small boat during the summer and autumn of 2001–2004. When a group of dolphins was sighted, estimates of group size, composition (mothers with calves, adults and juveniles only, and mixed groups) and the predominant activity (feeding, travelling, socialising, resting and milling) were recorded and thereafter at 2 min intervals. A grid of 1.5 × 1.5 km was constructed and each cell was characterised by environmental features, Area Use Index (percent of total annual search effort) and Activity Index (predominant behaviour of groups observed in that cell). Mothers with calves and smaller groups and resting behaviour occurred in shallowest waters supporting the idea/hypothesis that movement to shallower water is related to increased safety for individuals. Travelling occurred in the deepest areas with other behaviours observed in intermediate depths. Dolphin distribution within the bay differed significantly between years, but this was not related to any of the factors analysed in this study. Although there was considerable variation between years, in general, dolphins were found in deeper waters further from shore (except for mother–calf groups) and over areas with steeper seafloor gradient. The high variability in the distribution of the animals does not allow for the generation of a simple, area-specific management plan.     

Empowering communities – the role of intermediary organisations in community renewable energy projects in Indonesia

Community Renewable Energy (CRE) has been defying conventional energy systems for decades, though only recently it started to feature in academic and institutional discourses. Despite its new appeal, the literature on the impacts and factors influencing CRE projects is still scarce and builds mostly on studies in Europe and North America. In developing countries, where electricity access is low and energy poverty is prevalent, CRE can offer interesting opportunities for rural electrification and added benefits. The objective of this study is to assess the impacts of community-owned renewable energy projects and identify the internal and external drivers and barriers to their success. An exploratory case-study approach was used for collecting data, through interviews and observations, in two community micro-hydro projects in Indonesia. The results showed positive socio-economic impacts that exceed electrification benefits, and the reported success of community energy projects can be traced back to a combination of community-level as well as external factors. Yet, particularly important is the role of the intermediary organisation (Ibeka) in building communities’ ownership, enhancing (technical, entrepreneurial and managerial) capacities, transferring knowledge and technology, establishing innovative financing models and shaping policy. Such organisations are critical in bridging external and internal factors and thus represent a key element in integrating the proposed analytical frameworks.