Assessment of bioclimatic conditions on Crete Island,Greece

The objective of this study was to assess and analyze the human bioclimatic conditions of Crete Island, by applying two human thermal indices: physiological equivalent temperature (PET), derived from the Munich Energy-balance Model for Individuals human energy balance model, and Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI), based on the Fiala multi-node model of human thermoregulation. Human bioclimatic studies provide a framework for considering the effects of climatic conditions on human beings and highlighting the social/economic factors that mitigate or amplify the consequences of environmental changes. In order to estimate the thermal effect of the environment on the human body, it has been considered that the total effects of all thermal components, not only of individual parameters, should be taken into account. The climatic data (air temperature, relative humidity, cloudiness, wind speed) used in this study were acquired from the archives of the Hellenic National Meteorological Service, regarding ten meteorological stations in Crete Island. These data, covering the 30-year period 1975–2004, were used for the calculation of PET and UTCI in order to assess thermo-physiological stress levels. The findings of this analysis, such as bioclimatic diagrams, temporal and spatial distributions of PET and UTCI as well as trends and variability, will help stake holders to understand and interpret the island’s current bioclimate, in order to make any necessary adaptations and become more resilient to the foreseen climate change.     

Metabolic fate of the 14C-labeled herbicide clodinafop-propargyl in a sediment–water system

The metabolic fate of ¹⁴C-phenyl-labeled herbicide clodinafop-propargyl (¹⁴C-CfP) was studied for 28 days in lab assays using a sediment–water system derived from a German location. Mineralization was 5.21% of applied ¹⁴C after 28 days exhibiting a distinct lag phase until day 14 of incubation. Portions of radioactivity remaining in water phases decreased at moderate rate to 18.48% after 28 days; 62.46% were still detected in water after 14 days. Soxhlet extraction of the sediment using acetonitrile released 35.56% of applied ¹⁴C with day 28, while 33.99% remained as non-extractable residues. A remarkable increase of bound ¹⁴C was observed between 14 and 28 days correlating with the distinct increase of mineralization. No correlation was found throughout incubation with microbial activity of the sediment as determined by dimethyl sulfoxide reduction. Dissolved oxygen and pH value of water phases remained almost constant for 28 days. Analyses of Soxhlet extracts of the sediment and ethyl acetate extracts of water phases by radio-TLC and radio-HPLC revealed that CfP was rapidly cleaved to free acid clodinafop (Cf), which was further (bio-) transformed. DT₅₀ values (based on radio-HPLC) were below 1 day (CfP) and slightly above 28 days (Cf). Further metabolites were not detected. Fractionation of humic and non-humic components of the sediment demonstrated that CfP's non-extractable residues were predominantly associated with fulvic acids up to 14 days of incubation (3.36%), whereas after 28 days, the majority of radioactivity was found in the humin/mineral fraction (13.30% of applied ¹⁴C). Due to high-performance size-exclusion chromatography of the fulvic acids fraction derived from assays incubated for 28 days, this portion of ¹⁴C was firmly, possibly covalently bound to fulvic acids and did not consist of CfP or Cf. Using an isolation strategy comprising preincubation of sediment with CfP and mineralization of ¹⁴C-CfP as criterion, a microorganism was isolated from the sediment examined. It grew on ¹⁴C-CfP as sole carbon source with evolution of ¹⁴CO₂. The bacterium was characterized by growth on commonly used carbon sources and 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Its sequence exhibited high similarity with that of Nocardioides aromaticivorans strain H-1 (98.85%; DSM 15131, JCM 11674).     

Desorption of arsenic from clay and humic acid-coated clay by dissolved phosphate and silicate

Arsenic (As) contaminated aquifers contain iron minerals and clays that strongly bind As at their surfaces. It was suggested that As mobilization is driven by natural organic matter (including fulvic acids (FA) and humic acids (HA)) present in the aquifers either via providing reducing equivalents for reductive dissolution of Fe(III) (hydr)oxides or via competitive desorption of As from the mineral surfaces. In the present study we quantified sorption of As(III) and As(V) to Ca(2+)-homoionized illite (IL) and to kaolinite (Kao) as well as to HA-coated clays, i.e., illite-HA (IL-HA) and kaolinite-HA (Kao-HA) at neutral pH. Clay-HA complexes sorbed 28-50% more As than clay-only systems upon addition of 100μM As(III)/As(V) to 0.5g of clay or HA-clay with Ca(2+) probably playing an important role for HA binding to the clay surface and As binding to the HA. When comparing sorption of As(V) and As(III) to clay and HA-clay complexes, As(V) sorption was generally higher by 15-32% than sorption of As(III) to the same complexes. IL and IL-HA sorbed 11-28% and 6-11% more As compared to Kao and Kao-HA, respectively. In a second step, we then followed desorption of As from Kao, Kao-HA, IL and IL-HA by 100 and 500μM phosphate or silicate both at high (0.41-0.77μmol As/g clay), and low (0.04 to 0.05μmol As/g clay) As loadings. Phosphate desorbed As to a larger extent than silicate regardless of the amount of As loaded to clay minerals, both in the presence and absence of HA, and both for illite and kaolinite. At high loadings of As, the desorption of both redox species of As from clay-HA complexes by phosphate/silicate ranged from 32 to 72% compared to 2-54% in clay only systems meaning that As was desorbed to a larger extent from HA-coated clays compared to clay only systems. When comparing As(III) desorption by phosphate/silicate to As(V) desorption in high As-loading systems, there was no clear trend for which As species is desorbed to a higher extent in the four clay systems meaning that both As species behave similarly regarding desorption from clay surfaces by phosphate/silicate. Similarly, no significant differences were found in high As-loading systems in the amount of As desorbed by phosphate/silicate when comparing Kao vs. IL and Kao-HA vs IL-HA systems meaning that both clay types behave similarly regarding desorption of As by phosphate/silicate. At low As loadings, up to 80% of As was desorbed by phosphate and silicate with no noticeable differences being observed between different As species, different types of clay, clay vs clay-HA or the type of desorbant (phosphate and silicate). The results of this study showed that HA sorption to Ca(2+)-homoionized clay minerals can increase As binding to the clay although the As sorbed to the clay-HA is also released to a greater extent by competing ions such as phosphate and silicate. Desorption of As depended on the initial loadings of As onto the clay/clay-HA. Based on our results, the effect of humic substances on sorption of As and on desorption of As by phosphate and silicate has to be considered in order to fully understand and evaluate the environmental behavior of As in natural environments.     

Formation of a ternary neptunyl(V) biscarbonato inner-sphere sorption complex inhibits calcite growth rate

Neptunyl, Np(V)O(2)(+), along with the other actinyl ions U(VI)O(2)(2+) and Pu(V,VI)O(2)((+,2+)), is considered to be highly mobile in the geosphere, while interaction with mineral surfaces (inner- or outer-sphere adsorption, ion-exchange, and coprecipitation/structural incorporation) may retard its migration. Detailed information about the exact interaction mechanisms including the structure and stoichiometry of the adsorption complexes is crucial to predict the retention behavior in diverse geochemical environments. Here, we investigated the structure of the neptunyl adsorption complex at the calcite-water interface at pH 8.3 in equilibrium with air by means of low-temperature (15K) EXAFS spectroscopy at the Np-L(III) edge. The coordination environment of neptunyl consists of two axial oxygen atoms at 1.87(±0.01)?, and an equatorial oxygen shell of six atoms at 2.51(±0.01)?. Two oxygen backscatterers at 3.50(±0.04)? along with calcium backscatterers at 3.95(±0.03)? suggest that neptunyl is linked to the calcite surface through two monodentate bonds towards carbonate groups of the calcite surface. Two additional carbon backscatterers at 2.94(±0.02)? are attributed to two carbonate ions in bidentate coordination. This structural environment is conclusively interpreted as a ternary surface complex, where a neptunyl biscarbonato complex sorbs through two monodentate carbonate bonds to steps at the calcite (104) face, while the two bidentately coordinated carbonate groups point away from the surface. This structural information is further supported by Mixed Flow Reactor (MFR) experiments. They show a significant decrease of the calcite growth rate in the presence of neptunyl(V), in line with blockage of the most active crystal growth sites, step and kink sites, by adsorption of neptunyl. Formation of this sorption complex constitutes an important retention mechanism for neptunyl in calcite-rich environments.     

Influence of global change on phytoplankton and nutrient cycling in the Elbe River

The effects of changing climatic and socioeconomic conditions on the water quality of the Elbe River were investigated using the deterministic model QSim. Since the impact of global change on river water quality marks the endpoint of various processes in the catchment and in the atmosphere, this study was performed within a network of interacting models that determined input parameters for water quality simulations. The development of phytoplankton and nutrient concentrations under conditions of global change was modeled along a 700 km stretch of the river. The simulations revealed a strong, scale-dependent effect of climate change on phytoplankton biomass, leading to a longitudinal shift of the dominating processes (primary productivity vs. respiration) along the river continuum. Under reduced flow, combined with increasing temperature and global radiation, phytoplankton biomass increased and phytoplankton maxima shifted in upstream direction, followed by higher system respiration rates in the adjacent downstream sections. In contrast, higher flow shifted the phytoplankton maximum toward the downstream sections. Even a drastic reduction of phosphorus inputs from anthropogenic sources had only limited influence on algal biomass, due to the ability of algal cells to store phosphorus. A strong reduction in P-inputs especially in the headwaters would be necessary to counterbalance the possible climate-induced effects on algal biomass.     

How can winter tourism adapt to climate change in Saxony’s mountains?

This study deals with regional climate change in five low mountain areas in Eastern Germany and assesses the awareness of tourism professionals towards climate change, its impact on winter tourism and adaptation options. Favourable conditions for winter tourism decreased over the last decades in the Saxon low mountain ranges. A change from predominantly snow-based to a wider variety of winter tourism options appears indispensible as climate models project continuing warming. Diversifying touristic options provides opportunities to develop new business fields and to attract new target groups. This paper reveals obstacles and opportunities to adapt and develop winter tourism in the central European low mountain ranges and to increase the competitiveness of regional tourism. A survey explored the current awareness of representatives of most of the Saxon downhill skiing areas and of selected winter tourism municipalities towards climate change and its implications on their business. Awareness is essential to successfully implement adaptation measures. About half of the interviewees were not aware of the regional changes in natural snow conditions projected for the next 15–20 years. Nevertheless, the majority recognized climate change as a serious issue. Yet, stakeholders repeatedly emphasized their uncertainty about related scientific facts. They attributed their perception to mass media reports that suggest a lack of scientific consensus on climate change issues. Adaptation options for slope-based and general winter tourism are developed and presented, involving ideas of the interviewees. To successfully move towards adaptation, supply and marketing of alternative offers need to be strengthened. A survey of tourist expectations is planned to ensure a successful implementation of new (winter) touristic offers in the Saxon mountains.     

Distribution, fate and formation of non-extractable residues of a nonylphenol isomer in soil with special emphasis on soil derived organo-clay complexes

Anthropogenic contaminants like nonylphenols (NP) are added to soil, for instance if sewage-sludge is used as fertilizer in agriculture. A commercial mixture of NP consists of more than 20 isomers. For our study, we used one of the predominate isomers of NP mixtures, 4-(3,5-dimethylhept-3-yl)phenol, as a representative compound. The aim was to investigate the fate and distribution of the isomer within soil and soil derived organo-clay complexes. Therefore, (14)C- and (13)C-labeled NP was added to soil samples and incubated up to 180 days. Mineralization was measured and soil samples were fractionated into sand, silt and clay; the clay fraction was further separated in humic acids, fulvic acids and humin. The organo-clay complexes pre-incubated for 90 or 180 days were re-incubated with fresh soil for 180 days, to study the potential of re-mobilization of incorporated residues. The predominate incorporation sites of the nonylphenol isomer in soil were the organo-clay complexes. After 180 days of incubation, 22 % of the applied (14)C was mineralized. The bioavailable, water extractable portion was low (9 % of applied (14)C) and remained constant during the entire incubation period, which could be explained by an incorporation/release equilibrium. Separation of organo-clay complexes, after extraction with solvents to release weakly incorporated, bioaccessible portions, showed that non-extractable residues (NER) were preferentially located in the humic acid fraction, which was regarded as an effect of the chemical composition of this fraction. Generally, 27 % of applied (14)C was incorporated into organo-clay complexes as NER, whereas 9 % of applied (14)C was bioaccessible after 180 days of incubation. The re-mobilization experiments showed on the one hand, a decrease of the bioavailability of the nonylphenol residues due to stronger incorporation, when the pre-incubation period was increased from 90 to 180 days. On the other hand, a shift of these residues from the clay fraction to other soil fractions was observed, implying a dynamic behavior of incorporated residues, which may result in bioaccessibility of the NER of nonylphenol.     

Factors influencing PM10 emissions from road pavement wear

Accelerated pavement wear is one of the major environmental disadvantages of studded tyres in northern regions and results in increased levels of PM₁₀. Measurements of PM₁₀ in a road simulator hall have been used to study the influence of pavement properties, tyre type and vehicle speed on pavement wear. The test set-up included three different pavements (one granite and two quartzite with different aggregate sizes), three different tyre types (studded, non-studded, and summer tyres) and different speeds (30–70 km h^?1). The results show that the granite pavement was more prone to PM₁₀ production compared to the quartzite pavements. Studded winter tyres yield tens of times higher PM₁₀ concentrations compared to non-studded winter tyres. Wear from summer tyres was negligible in comparison. It was also shown that wear is strongly dependent on speed; every 10 km h^?1 increase yielded an increase of the PM₁₀ concentration of 680 μg m^?3 in one of the simulator experiments.     

Speciated mercury in size-fractionated particles in Shanghai ambient air

Size-fractionated particles were collected at two sites from July 2004 to April 2006 in Shanghai. The mercury in particles was extracted and divided operationally into four species: exchangeable particulate mercury (EXPM), HCl-soluble particulate mercury (HPM), elemental particulate mercury (EPM) and residual particulate mercury. The total particulate Hg concentration during the study period ranged from 0.07 ng m^?3 to 1.45 ng m^?3 with the average 0.56 ± 0.22 ng m^?3 at site 1, while 0.20 ng m^?3–0.47 ng m^?3 with the average 0.33 ± 0.09 ng m^?3 at site 2, which is far higher than some foreign cities and comparable to some cities with heavy air pollution in China. The Hg mass content also displayed evident size distribution, with higher value in PM_1.6–3.7, somewhat higher or lower than the source profile. EXAM was only found in the summer, HPM have higher percentage in summer and fall rather than in winter and spring. The different mercury species showed different correlation to temperature, relative humidity, wind speed. HPM positively depends on temperature at both sites which implies the importance of mercury transformation on particles. In foggy days TPM increased greatly, but HPM didn't vary greatly as anticipated. Instead, RPM gained a distinguished increase. It demonstrated that aqueous reaction and complex heterogenic reactions in droplet might happen in acidic environment. The correlation of mercury with other pollutants including SO₂, NO₂, CO and PM₁₀ varies with the different mercury forms. Hybrid single-particle lagrangian integrated trajectories (HYSPLIT) model was used to back trace air mass at different representative days and results indicated that transportation from Huabei Plain will increase mercury concentration in winter and fall to some extent. The possible existing compounds and their atmospheric behavior of HPM, EPM and RPM were calculated and the compared to analyze its implication on atmospheric mercury cycle.     

Growing season methane budget of an Inner Mongolian steppe

We present a methane (CH₄) budget for the area of the Baiyinxile Livestock Farm, which comprises approximately 1/3 of the Xilin river catchment in central Inner Mongolia, P.R. China. The budget calculations comprise the contributions of natural sources and sinks as well as sources related to the main land-use in this region (non-nomadic pastoralism) during the growing season (May–September). We identified as important CH₄ sources floodplains (mean 1.55 ± 0.97 mg CH₄–C m^?2 h^?1) and domestic ruminants, which are mainly sheep in this area. Within the floodplain significant differences between investigated positions were detected, whereby only positions close-by the river or bayous emitted large amounts of CH₄ (mean up to 6.21 ± 1.83 mg CH₄–C m^?2 h^?1). Further CH₄ sources were sheepfolds (0.08–0.91 mg CH₄–C m^?2 h^?1) and pasture faeces (1.34 ± 0.22 mg CH₄–C g^?1 faeces dry weight), but they did not play a significant role for the CH₄ budget. In contrast, dung heaps were not a net source of CH₄ (0.0 ± 0.2 for an old and 0.0 ± 0.3 μg CH₄–C kg^?1 h^?1 for a new dung heap). Trace gas measurements along two landscape transects (volcano, hill slope) revealed expectedly a mean CH₄ uptake (volcano: 76.5 ± 4.3; hill: 28.3 ± 5.3 μg CH₄–C m^?2 h^?1), which is typical for the aerobic soils in this and other steppe ecosystems. The observed fluxes were rarely influenced by topography.The CH₄ emissions from the floodplain and the sheep were not compensated by the CH₄ oxidation of aerobic steppe soils and thus, this managed semi-arid grassland did not serve as a terrestrial sink, but as a source for this globally important greenhouse gas. The source strength amounted to 1.5–3.6 kg CH₄–C ha^?1 during the growing season, corresponding to 3.5–8.7 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1.