Review of present European environmental policies and legislation involving cultural heritage

Cultural heritage is being addressed by a number of charters and conventions and it is clear that its consideration within decision-making processes is progressively becoming a real challenge, both for developers and public authorities. Against this background, this paper reviews the environmental assessment framework developed by the European Community, as this should increasingly influence decision making about cultural heritage in an urban setting. The legislative framework for access to environmental information is also reviewed because of its relevance to the decision-making process.The Directives on Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic Environmental Assessment both require a consideration of cultural heritage in decision making. This requirement can go some way to addressing the paradox in the European Community's position whereby the community wishes to conserve and enhance its own cultural identity whilst, at the same time, cultural heritage is usually defined at a local level. The present paper suggests that, given their flexibility, the two European Community directives on environmental assessment constitute a promising opportunity to address this seeming paradox, but that there is a significant gap between legal obligations and the methodological tools to meet them.     

New birds on the block: new neighbors increase defensive costs for territorial male willow ptarmigan

Previous researchers have hypothesized that site-faithful animals may benefit from the presence of familiar neighbors. This study compares the relative costs of territorial defense against new and former neighbors by male willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus). Territorial defense against new neighbors appeared to require a greater expenditure of both time and effort than did defense against former neighbors. Territorial males that had several new neighbors spent a higher proportion of time fighting than did males with fewer new neighbors, and males with both new and former neighbors spent a greater amount of time fighting with their new neighbors, on average, than with their former neighbors. In addition, fights with new neighbors occurred relatively more frequently and were longer than fights with former neighbors. Finally, fights involving new neighbors tended to escalate to higher levels than fights between former neighbors. Reduced defensive costs for site-faithful, territorial males may provide one explanation for the tendency of males to be more site-faithful than females in many species.