Why do blue-eyed men prefer women with the same eye color?

The human eye color blue reflects a simple, predictable, and reliable genetic mechanism of inheritance. Blue-eyed individuals represent a unique condition, as in their case there is always direct concordance between the genotype and phenotype. On the other hand, heterozygous brown-eyed individuals carry an allele that is not concordant with the observed eye color. Hence, eye color can provide a highly visible and salient cue to the child’s heredity. If men choose women with characteristics that promote the assurance of paternity, then blue-eyed men should prefer and feel more attracted towards women with blue eyes. To test these predictions, close-up photos of young women and adult men with either blue or brown eyes were rated for their attractiveness by young women and men observers with either blue or brown eyes (N=88). The eye color in the photographs of each model was manipulated so that a same face would be shown with either the natural eye color (e.g., blue) or with the other color (e.g., brown). Both blue-eyed and brown-eyed female participants showed no difference in their attractiveness ratings for male models of either eye color. Similarly, brown-eyed men showed no preference for either blue-eyed or brown-eyed female models. However, blue-eyed men rated as more attractive the blue-eyed women than the brown-eyed ones. We interpret the latter preference in terms of specific mate selective choice of blue-eyed men, reflecting strategies for reducing paternity uncertainty. In a second study, a group of young adults (N=443) of both sexes and different eye colors (blue, brown, and green) were asked to report the eye and hair color of their romantic partners. Their responses indicated the presence of assortative mating by eye color as well as, to a less degree, for hair color. Most importantly, blue-eyed male respondents were the group with the largest proportion of partners of same eye color. These findings 1) indicate that blue-eyed men do prefer women with the same eye color and 2) specifically suggest the presence of a male adaptation for the detection of extra-pair paternity based on eye color, as a phenotypically based assurance of paternity (i.e., when the father’s and offspring’s phenotypes match) as well as a defense against cuckoldry (i.e., when the phenotypes do not match).Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accesseble for authorized users.     

River water quality management model using genetic algorithm

Conventional mathematical programming methods, such as linear programming, non linear programming, dynamic programming and integer programming have been used to solve the cost optimization problem for regional wastewater treatment systems. In this study, a river water quality management model was developed through the integration of a genetic algorithm (GA). This model was applied to a river system contaminated by three determined discharge sources to achieve the water quality goals and wastewater treatment cost optimization in the river basin. The genetic algorithm solution, described the treatment plant efficiency, such that the cost of wastewater treatment for the entire river basin is minimized while the water quality constraints in each reach are satisfied. This study showed that genetic algorithm can be applied for river water quality modeling studies as an alternative to the present methods.     

Biorheological properties of intertidal organic fluff on mud flats and its modification of gill ventilation in buried sole <Emphasis Type="Italic">Solea solea</Emphasis>

Intertidal mudflats are important nursery grounds for juveniles of many fish species. However, they are being used increasingly to farm bivalve molluscs, which produce large amounts of organic “fluff”, overlying the mud. Fish such as sole, Solea solea, hide in this fluff from potential predators, but the energy consumed by respiring the fluff may be high due to its biorheological properties. We developed an ichthyoviscometer. It incorporates a freshly killed fish as a viscometer, and we developed it to measure the rheological properties of fluids and suspensions, including fluff, at scales encompassing those in gill ventilation. We have shown that the rheological behaviour of fluff is close to that of a gel with a yield stress strongly dependent on particulate organic matter concentration ([POM]). This has allowed us to model fluff flow through the gill channels in living sole as a function of fish size and [POM], showing that in a 26-g sole, fluff would halve flow at a [POM] value of 3.2 g l⁻¹, and stop it at 3.4.     

Interspecific associations of Cape ground squirrels with two mongoose species: benefit or cost?

Mixed-species associations have been described in many vertebrate species, but few behavioral studies have investigated associations between species from different mammalian orders. Cape ground squirrels (Xerus inauris) are highly social rodents that inhabit burrows with two species of mongoose, but the benefits of these interspecific associations to ground squirrels remain unresolved. We compared the behavior of squirrels while solitary, with conspecifics, and in the presence of suricates (Suricata suricatta) and yellow mongooses (Cynictis pencillatus). Squirrels spent less time alert and more time feeding when suricates were present, but increased vigilance in the presence of yellow mongooses. In a series of mobbing trials with a puff adder (Bitis arietans), a common predator of all three species, Cape ground squirrels were the most active in mobbing the snake. Our results suggest that Cape ground squirrels benefit from associating with suricates, but not necessarily with yellow mongooses. Both mongoose species benefit from the burrowing activities of the squirrels for thermoregulation and escape from predators, and a suite of other organisms may similarly benefit from the habitat modifications by Cape ground squirrels, suggesting they could be considered ecosystem engineers of the arid and semi-arid regions of southern Africa. Thus, the association between Cape ground squirrels and suricates appears mutually beneficial, whereas yellow mongooses may merely be commensals of the squirrels.     

Mating system and individual reproductive success of sympatric anadromous and resident brook charr, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salvelinus fontinalis</Emphasis>, under natural conditions

Salmonids are known for the occurrence in sympatry of two life-history forms, one that undergoes migration to sea before returning to freshwater to reproduce (anadromous) and one that inhabits freshwater without a migration phase (resident). Whereas one breeding population is often suggested by population genetic studies, mating patterns have rarely been directly assessed, especially when both sexes are found within each life-history form. By using highly polymorphic microsatellite loci and parentage analysis in a natural population of sympatric anadromous and resident brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis), we found that gene flow occurred between the two forms and was mediated by resident males mating with both resident and anadromous females. Determinants of reproductive success, estimated by the number of surviving juveniles (ages 1 and 2 years), differed between the sexes. No strong evidence of the influence of size on individual reproductive success was found for males, whereas larger females (and hence most likely to be anadromous) were more successful. The higher individual reproductive success of anadromous fish compared to residents was mainly explained by this higher reproductive success of anadromous females. We suggest that resident males adopt a “sneaking” reproductive tactic as a way of increasing their reproductive success by mating with females of all sizes in all habitats. The persistence of the resident tactic among females may be linked to their advantage in accessing spatially constrained spawning areas in small tributary streams unavailable to larger females.     

Structure and function of the eversible glands of the aquatic firefly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Luciola leii</Emphasis> (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)

Summary. When attacked or otherwise disturbed, larvae of the aquatic firefly Luciola leii display fork-shaped glands laterally from the meso- and metathorax as well as each abdominal segment. Glandular eversion is accompanied by a strong pine oil-like odour, thanatosis and glowing from paired larval light organs. Observations by SEM and TEM revealed that there are numerous, almost spherical protuberances, measuring 9 μm in diameter on the surface of each gland. Each protuberance is connected to a well developed secretory cell via a 0.1 μm thick and 0.2 μm long stalk and bears three to six 7 μm long spines on its apex. The convoluted glandular walls measure 0.2 μm. The cytoplasm of the secretory cells is characterized by the presence of numerous mitochondria and an extensive system of cisternae and tubular endoplasmic reticulum. Preliminary GC-MS analysis of the glandular secretion revealed two volatile terpenoids: terpinolene and γ-terpinene. Choice and no-choice bioassays involving fish and ants as well as other predators demonstrate that the secretions serve as an effective deterrent against a range of ecologically relevant enemies. The larval postural adjustments, light emission, everted glands, and glandular release of distasteful or repellent compounds, appear to function as a multi-modal, aposematic larval defence. The tandem evolution of glandular secretions and conspicuousness in larval fireflies could partially explain their successful radiation into both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.     

Shifts in the spatio-temporal growth dynamics of shortleaf pine

Previous studies focusing on the growth history of Pinus echinata at the edge of its geographical range have suggested that changes in growth correspond to climatic and non-climatic (e.g., anthropogenic) factors. We employ a regime-dependent state-space model that allows us to detect and characterize the changes in tree growth dynamics over space and time using readily available dendrochronological and climatic data in the presence of various sources of uncertainty. We utilize methods common in atmospheric sciences but relatively unknown in ecology and forestry to develop a hierarchical model for tree growth and describe the growth dynamics. The utility of such methods for addressing ecological problems will grow as more high dimensional spatio-temporal processes are considered and datasets become more readily available.     

Mass transfer limitation of photosynthesis of coral reef algal turfs

Algal turfs are the major primary producing component on many coral reefs and this production supports higher levels in the complex reef trophic web. Rates of metabolism of algal turfs are related positively to water motion, consistent with limitation by the diffusion of a substance through a boundary layer. Based on engineering mass transfer theory, we hypothesized that photosynthesis of algal turfs is controlled by rates of mass transfer and responses of photosynthesis to increasing flow speed should be predicted by engineering correlations. This hypothesis was tested in ten experiments where photosynthesis was estimated in a flume/respirometer from changes in dissolved oxygen at eight flow speeds between 0.08 and 0.52 m/s. Flow in the flume and over the reef at Kaneohe Bay, Oahu, Hawaii was estimated using hot-film thermistor and electromagnetic current meters. Rates of photosynthesis were related positively to flow in all experiments and plots of the log of the average Sherwood number (Sh _meas) versus log Reynolds number (Re _D) for each experiment are lower than predicted for mass transfer through a turbulent boundary layer. Algal turf-covered plates are characterized as hydrodynamically transitional to fully rough surfaces and the lower than predicted slopes suggest that roughness reduces rates of mass transfer. A negative correlation between algal turf biomass and slopes of the log Sh _meas−log Re _D plots suggests that mass transfer to algal turfs is affected significantly by the physical structure of the algal community. Patterns of photosynthesis based on changes in dissolved oxygen and dissolved inorganic carbon concentrations (DIC) indicate that the flow speed effect is not the result of increased flux of oxygen from the algal turfs, and combined with the short response time to flow speed, suggest that DIC may limit rates of photosynthesis. Although there are differences between flow in the flume and flow over algal turfs on the reef, these results suggest that photosynthesis is controlled, at least in part, by mass transfer. The chemical engineering approach provides a framework to pose further testable hypotheses about how algal canopy height, flow oscillation, turbulence, and substratum roughness may modulate rates of metabolism of coral reef algal turfs.     

Emergence of increased division of labor as a function of group size

Empirical evidence suggests that division of labor in insect societies is positively related to group size both within and across taxa. Response threshold models (RTM) have been commonly used to analyze patterns of division of labor. However, these models have been explored empirically and theoretically for only a limited number of tasks, and few studies have examined predictions of the model as colony size and work availability change. We theoretically examine how group size influences division of labor using a fixed response-threshold model. We simultaneously explore how expected by-products of increased colony size, including demand (total work need relative to total work force available) and task number, affect this relationship. Our results indicate that both low demand and high task number positively influence division of labor. We suggest that these changes parallel what is observed within social groups as their size increases, and that, in part, the commonly observed increased division of labor with increasing group size is emergent.