Economic evaluation of sewage treatment processes in India

This paper evaluates the total annual cost including capital and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs for the up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) and waste stabilization pond (WSP) systems operated in India. It also compares UASB and WSP systems with the activated sludge process (ASP) and biological aerated filter (BAF) systems in terms of total annual cost and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal cost by assuming various annual interest rates and land prices. It was found that the relationship between capital and O&M costs per unit size of a UASB or WSP system and its treatment capacity can be established by a first-order equation. The relation between the cost of organic removal and capital or O&M cost for various sewage treatment systems at various annual interest rates revealed that, for the Indian context, UASB could be the most suitable option in terms of expenses and treatment efficiency.     

Effect of density-driven flow on the through-diffusion experiment

Diffusion is one of the main mechanisms of solute transport in pore water of geologic media. The effective diffusion coefficient of a solute in a rock is usually measured by the through-diffusion experiment. However, in this experiment, the effect of advection, induced by density difference between dense aqueous solution and pure water, has not been considered. To evaluate the effect of density-driven flow, a through-diffusion experiment using Fontainebleau sandstone was conducted for KCl and KI aqueous solutions with various densities. The measured effective diffusion coefficients were positively correlated with the density difference; the effective diffusion coefficient of a 1 M KI solution (density difference, 0.119 g/cm³) was one order of magnitude larger than that of a 0.1 M KCl solution (density difference, 0.005 g/cm³). The result is explained by a theoretical model using a diffusion–advection equation including Darcy's law. Based on the theory, a diagram to evaluate the condition at which the measured effective diffusion coefficient does not include the effect of advection is presented.     

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in paddy soils and river sediments in Akita, Japan

Paddy soils and sediments from the Yoneshirogawa, Omonogawa, and Koyoshigawa River Basins in Akita were analyzed for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs). The levels and compositions in those samples including soils from non-agricultural areas (non-agricultural soils) were investigated using isomer-specific analysis to determine characteristic sources. The PCDD/PCDF compositions in the samples were compared with respect to possible sources. The PCDD/PCDF concentrations in paddy soils were much higher than those in the non-agricultural soils and much higher than those found in other parts of Japan. Although PCDD/PCDFs were ubiquitous in sediments from river sources to mouths of the respective river basins, those concentrations were much lower than those from paddy soils and non-agricultural soils, and from other parts of Japan. Comparison of PCDD/PCDF homologues and isomer compositions for samples indicated that compositions of paddy soils and sediments, except for those from river sources, had similar characteristics to PCDD/PCDFs originating from impurities in herbicides, 2,4,6-trichlorophenyl 4-nitrophenyl ether (CNP) and pentachlorophenol (PCP), and that compositions of river-source sediments and non-agricultural soils resembled those of atmospheric depositions. Results of statistical analyses suggest that PCDD/PCDF contamination of paddy soils and sediments is attributable mainly to three sources: CNP, PCP, and atmospheric deposition. Results of this study also demonstrate that CNP and PCP are not only important contaminants of local areas of Japan, but that they exist throughout Akita, in northern Japan. We therefore conclude that PCDD/PCDF pollution caused by those compounds has a widespread influence on paddy soils and river sediments in Japan.     

Behavior and prediction of photochemical degradation of chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cyclohexane

The photochemical degradation of 11 chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (ClPAHs) and the corresponding 5 parent PAHs was examined to simulate the compound’s fate on aerosol surfaces. All the ClPAHs and PAHs decayed according to the first-order reaction rate kinetics. The photolysis rates of ClPAHs varied greatly according to the skeleton of PAHs; the rates of chlorophenanthrenes (ClPhes) and 1-chloropyrene were higher than those of corresponding parent PAHs, whereas chlorofluoranthenes, 7-chlorobenz[a]anthracene and 6-chlorobenzo[a]pyrene were more stable under irradiation compared to respective parent PAH. Considering the photoproducts of ClPhes detected, the oxidation could occur immediately at positions of the highest frontier electron density. Finally, the quantitative structure-property relationship models were developed for direct photolysis half-lives and average quantum yields of the ClPAHs and parent PAHs, in which the significant factors affecting photolysis were E_LUMO+1, total energy and surface area, and E_LUMO, E_LUMO − E_HOMO and total energy, respectively.     

Production of biologically safe digested manure for land application by a full-scale biogas plant with heat-inactivation

Inactivation of indigenous indicator micro-organisms such as faecal coliforms, coliphages, and faecal streptococci was investigated in a full-scale biogas plant that mainly digested cow manure. The biogas plant consisted principally of a feed reservoir, fermentation tank (37 degrees C), heat-inactivation process (70 degrees C), and five reservoirs for the heat-inactivated, digested manure that was used by a local livestock farmer as liquid fertilizer. Although all the indicators tended to exhibit stepwise decreases with each stage of treatment, coliphages were found to be more capable of surviving than faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci under mesophilic anaerobic conditions as well as high temperature conditions (heat-inactivation at 70 degrees C). Liquid fertilizer produced at the biogas plant had faecal coliform densities less than the stipulations of the US EPA 40 CFR 503 Class A limits. Heat-inactivation tests indicated that although coliphages exhibited more tolerance than other bacterial indicators between 37 and 70 degrees C, they were more sensitive to continuous temperature increase than faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci.     

Evaluation of an electrolysis apparatus for inactivating antineoplastics in clinical wastewater

We recently reported a system for inactivating antineoplastics in which sodium hypochlorite is supplied by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution. In this study, we designed an electrolysis apparatus for inactivating the cytotoxicity of antineoplastics in clinical wastewater using the system. The apparatus consists of an electrolysis cell with platinum-iridium electrodes, a pool tank, a circulating system for wastewater, a safety system for explosive gas and overflow, and an exhaust duct. The free chlorine concentration increased linearly up to 6500 mg l(-1), and pH also increased to 9.0-10.0 within 2h, when 0.9% sodium chloride solution was electrolyzed. We examined its efficacy with model and clinical wastewaters. The reciprocal of dilution factor for disappearance of cytotoxicity using Molt-4 cells was compared before and after electrolysis. In the model wastewater, that was 9.10 x 10(4) before electrolysis, and 3.56 x 10(2) after 2h of electrolysis. In the clinical wastewater (n=26), that was 6.90 x 10(3)-1.02 x 10(6) before electrolysis, and 1.08 x 10(2)-1.45 x 10(4) after 2h of electrolysis. Poisonous and explosive gases released by the electrolysis were measured; however, they were found to be negligible in terms of safety. The environmental load was evaluated by carbon dioxide generation as an index and it was found that the carbon dioxide generated by the electrolysis method was 1/70 lower than that by the dilution method with tap water. Moreover, the cost of the electrolysis method was 1/170 lower than that of the dilution method. This method was found to be both effective and economically valuable.     

Separation, synthesis and estrogenic activity of 4-nonylphenols: two sets of new diastereomeric isomers in a commercial mixture

Two sets of new diastereomeric 4-nonylphenol (NP) isomers [4-(3,4-dimethylheptan-4-yl)phenol (344NP, NP-J, L) and 4-(3,4-dimethylheptan-3-yl)phenol (343NP, NP-K, P)] were separated from a commercial NP mixture. The mixture of these diastereomers was synthesized at the same time by a single Friedel-Crafts reaction of 3,4-dimethyl-4-heptanol and phenol, and the mixture was separated into individual NPs by HPLC equipped with Hypercarb column. For the first time, in this study the stereostructure-estrogenic activity relationship of NP diastereomers was investigated. The NP isomers (NP-L and NP-P) having the beta-methyl group over the benzene ring were found to be 2-4 times more estrogenic than their diastereomers (NP-J and NP-K). In the case of the other set of diastereomer [4-(3,5-dimethylheptan-3-yl)phenol, (353NP, NP-E, G)] containing gamma-methyl group in the molecule, the gamma-methyl proton signal (delta 0.49) in the more estrogenic isomer (NP-G) also appeared in a higher field than the corresponding methyl signal (delta 0.76) of the less estrogenic isomer (NP-E).     

Effect of land management on soil microbial N supply to crop N uptake in a dry tropical cropland in Tanzania

In Sub-Saharan Africa, conservation of available soil N during early crop growth, when N loss by leaching generally occurs, is important to improve crop productivity. In a dry tropical cropland in Tanzania, we assessed the potential role of soil microbes as a temporal N sink-source to conserve the available soil N until later crop growth, which generally requires substantial crop N uptake. We evaluated the effect of land management [i.e., no input, plant residue application before planting (P plot) with or without fertilizer application, fertilizer application alone, and non-cultivated plots] on the relationship between soil N pool [microbial biomass N (MBN) and inorganic N] and crop N uptake throughout the ∼120-d crop growth period in two consecutive years. In the P plot, MBN clearly increased (∼14.6-29.6 kg N ha⁻¹) early in the crop growth period in both years because of immobilization of potentially leachable N, and it conserved a larger soil N pool (∼10.5-21.2 kg N ha⁻¹) than in the control plot. Especially in one year in which N leaching was critical, increased MBN maintained a larger soil N pool in the P plot throughout the experimental period, and a delay of increased MB C:N ratio and a substantial decrease in MBN was observed, indicating better soil microbial N supply for crop N uptake during later crop growth. Therefore, plant residue application before planting should enhance the role of soil microbes as a temporal N sink-source, leading to the conservation of potentially leachable N until later phase of crop growth, especially in years in which N leaching is relatively severe. Although further studies are necessary, our results suggest that plant residue application before planting is a promising option to achieve better N synchronization.