Meta‐Analysis of the Effects of Human Disturbance on Seed Dispersal by Animals

Animal‐mediated seed dispersal is important for sustaining biological diversity in forest ecosystems, particularly in the tropics. Forest fragmentation, hunting, and selective logging modify forests in myriad ways and their effects on animal‐mediated seed dispersal have been examined in many case studies. However, the overall effects of different types of human disturbance on animal‐mediated seed dispersal are still unknown. We identified 35 articles that provided 83 comparisons of animal‐mediated seed dispersal between disturbed and undisturbed forests; all comparisons except one were conducted in tropical or subtropical ecosystems. We assessed the effects of forest fragmentation, hunting, and selective logging on seed dispersal of fleshy‐fruited tree species. We carried out a meta‐analysis to test whether forest fragmentation, hunting, and selective logging affected 3 components of animal‐mediated seed dispersal: frugivore visitation rate, number of seeds removed, and distance of seed dispersal. Forest fragmentation, hunting, and selective logging did not affect visitation rate and were marginally associated with a reduction in seed‐dispersal distance. Hunting and selective logging, but not fragmentation, were associated with a large reduction in the number of seeds removed. Fewer seeds of large‐seeded than of small‐seeded tree species were removed in hunted or selectively logged forests. A plausible explanation for the consistently negative effects of hunting and selective logging on large‐seeded plant species is that large frugivores, as the predominant seed dispersers for large‐seeded plant species, are the first animals to be extirpated from hunted or logged forests. The reduction in forest area after fragmentation appeared to have weaker effects on frugivore communities and animal‐mediated seed dispersal than hunting and selective logging. The differential effects of hunting and selective logging on large‐ and small‐seeded tree species underpinned case studies that showed disrupted plant‐frugivore interactions could trigger a homogenization of seed traits in tree communities in hunted or logged tropical forests. Meta Análisis de los Efectos de la Perturbación Humana sobre la Dispersión de Semillas por Animales     

Correlation of pmax and KSt to specific surface area and calorific value of a dust

The safety characteristics p_max and K_St of a flammable dust are usually determined in a closed apparatus (20 l- or 1 m³-vessel). The results are strongly influenced by the parameters of the apparatus (e.g. the volume, geometry, dispersion system). The aim of this project is to investigate whether there is a correlation between p_max and K_St on the one hand and the calorific value H_S and the specific surface area S_m of the dust on the other. In an experimental study, around 200 dust samples from different sectors of industry will be analysed. The analysis of around 102 dusts shows that the correlation may be described by a logarithmic function. Owing to differences in reaction mechanism it is reasonable to formulate different functions for different substance groups (e.g. metals, organic materials). This may lead to an algorithm which can predict p_max and K_St from H_S and S_m within a defined range of error.     

Effect of sunlight radiation,rainfall and droplet spectra of sprays on persistence of bacillus thuringiensis deposits after application of dipel® 76af formulation onto conifers

Abstract

The effect of sunlight radiation, rainfall and droplet spectra of sprays on per ‐sistence of a Bacillus thuringiensis subspp. kurstaki (Btk) formulation, DiPel^® 76AF, was examined after application onto spruce [Picea glauca (Moench) Voss] foliage. The investigation consisted of three studies: (i) Study I: a laboratory microcosm study to examine the photostability of DiPel 76AF deposits on foliage after different periods of exposure to two radiation intensities, (ii) Study II: a laboratory microcosm study to examine the rainfastness of foliar deposits after exposure to different amounts of rainfall consisting of two separate droplet spectra, and (iii) Study III: a field microcosm study to investigate the influence of two different droplet spectra of DiPel 76AF sprays on foliar persistence of Btk under natural weathering conditions. In all studies, persistence of Btk was investigated both by bioassay [using spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana Clemens)] and total protein assay.

The findings of Study I indicated that bioactivity of foliar deposits decreased with increasing duration of exposure to radiation, and with increasing radiation intensity. The half‐life (DT₅₀, the exposure period required for 50% of the initial bioactivity to disappear) was 5.1 d for the low intensity, and 3.9 d for the higher intensity. In contrast with the bioassay results, the total protein levels [determined by the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) method] showed no decrease with increasing duration of exposure, or with increasing radiation intensity.

The findings of Study II indicated that bioactivity of foliar deposits decreased with increasing cumulative rainfall. A new term, RF₅₀ [the amount of rain (in mm) required to washoff 50% of the initial deposit], was introduced to understand the relationship between rainfall intensity and reduction in bioactivity. When the same amount of rain was applied in different droplet sizes, the RF₅₀ value was high (5.2 mm) for the small rain droplets, and was low (2.9 mm) for the large rain droplets. Similar to the bioassay results, the total protein concentrations (determined by the BCA method) decreased with increasing amount of rain and with increasing rainfall intensity. The RF₅₀ value (obtained using ng protein /cm²) was 5.4 mm for the small rain droplets, and was 3.4 mm for the large rain droplets.

The field microcosm study indicated that when DiPel 76AF was applied in small droplets (D_v.5 of 65 μm), the persistence of bioactivity was ca 8.0 d, whereas when it was applied in large droplets (D_v.5 of 130 nm) it was ca 11 d. Bioactivity decreased with time after spray, and the DT₅₀ was 1.98 d for the spray of small droplets, and 2.87 d for that of large droplets. Similar to the bioactivity, the total protein concentrations also decreased with time after spray, and the DT₅₀ values for the small and large droplet spectra were 3.45 and 6.07 d respectively.     

Spray atomization characteristics as a function of pesticide formulations and atomizer design

Abstract

The use of formulation adjuvants to increase the drop size of pesticide sprays has followed a practice which has evolved through many years of experimentation and development. The earliest materials used were simply designed to make the spray mix viscous on the premise that a mayonnaise‐like fluid would produce larger drops and hence increase the deposit efficiency. These viscomer materials, emulsions and water soluble thickeners such as starch and agars, as well as more complex cellulose materials, produced thick non‐Newtonian fluids which were difficult to mix, pump and spray, and provided questionable results. First, the larger drops reduced target coverage from a given volume of spray; and second, field tests with these definitely showed that a large volume of small drops were still being produced even with the thickest of formulations.

The next step in adjuvant evolution was the introduction of polyvinyl, polyacrylamide and polyamide elastomer materials. These polymers are also non‐Newtonian, but due to their peculiar molecular bonding, they have the capability of forming long string‐like streams which when atomized can retract into a spray of large drops. Pure forms of these polymers are blended by commercial producers to enable compatibility with pesticide chemicals. We have conducted a series of laboratory and wind tunnel tests; first, to try and establish some physical parameters identifying their characteristics and second, to determine how these adjuvants affect atomization and the production of small drift‐prone drops (i.e., those smaller than 120 μm in diameter).

Our results with the laboratory studies of physical properties and of the wind tunnel drop size tests have been inconclusive. The elastomer materials have relatively low viscosity (1.5 to 6 mPa.s) and reduced surface tension (50 to 60 mN/m) but our stream‐flow extension tests were non‐productive. The drop size studies comparing water sprays with polymer‐water mixtures gave us a mixed picture. Generally drop size was increased for all of the fan (deflector and milled orifice) and cone type atomizers. But an increase was also indicated of the volume of spray in drops less than 120 μm showing that the polymer did not fully control the production of these small drops under all of the testing procedures we studied.

It is difficult to evaluate the capability of these additives for controlling or reducing production of the drift‐prone small drops. While the pure solutions of the water soluble polymers would appear to be capable of this desirable effect, it is also evident that in order to make these formulations compatible with pesticide spray solutions, several other solvents, emulsifiers and surface active chemicals are added to the formulation, thus affecting the atomization characteristics and hence their drift‐control capability.     

The Relative Efficiency of Ranked Set Sampling in Ordinary Least Squares Regression

Ranked set sampling was developed for situations where measurement cost is expensive compared with unit acquisition. This paper presents results of simulations and theory examining the impact of balanced ranked set sampling on the relative efficiencies of the slope and intercept estimators of an ordinary least squares regression. Perfect ranking of either the independent or the dependent variable is assumed throughout. In contradistinction to most of the published ranked set sampling work, it is demonstrated that balanced ranked set sampling offers at most little improvement in the relative efficiencies of the slope estimator at any sample size.     

Gini Index for Cities: A Preliminary Study on Regional Differences of Chinese City Size Distribution

Abstract

City size distribution is of interest because of a number of key stylized facts, including notably Zipf's law for cities and the importance of urban primacy. But a new and more efficient method Gini index can be used for calculating regional city size distribution. This paper begins by developing a calculation method for the Gini index, dividing the whole country into 26 areas and then calculating each area's Gini index value. Based on these calculation results, this paper gives a preliminary study on regional differences of its city size distribution and the dynamics.     

Size structure of urban agglomerations in China: rationality evaluation,patterns, and implications

ABSTRACT

This paper establishes a diagnostic model for assessing the rationality of size structure of urban agglomerations (UAs) in China. The model is designed to determine from a three-dimensional index including size distribution index (SDI), size compactness index (SCI), and size efficiency index (SEI). The spatio-temporal pattern of size structure involving the studied 19 UAs and its implications are explored. The results indicate that size structure of China’s UAs advanced from a low rationality development stage to a moderate rationality development stage in 1995–2015. Among them, the SDI and SEI were reasonably high, and the SCI was relatively low. Spatially, the high rationality UAs were distributed across eastern China, while the low rationality UAs were located in western China. UAs with positive size structure possessed typically a dual- or multicenter urban structure, while UAs with negative size structure usually presented as a single-center structure. The evolutionary trajectories of rationality of size structure of UAs can be summarized as four different stages. Our findings suggest that, in addition to consolidating the status of national-level UAs, the development of regional-level UAs should be promoted. Also, the fostering focus and direction should be oriented toward an UA with dual- or multicenter spatial structure.     

北京西北城区与清洁对照点夏季大气PM10的微观特征及粒度分布

应用高分辨率场发射扫描电镜(FESEM)和图像分析技术研究了北京西北城区和清洁对照点非取暖期(2001年夏季)大气单个颗粒物的形貌特征以及PM₁₀和PM_2.5的数量-粒度和体积-粒度分布.研究表明,烟尘集合体在2个采样点都普遍存在,具有区域性污染的特征;不规则状矿物颗粒物多见于市区PM₁₀样品中,而长条状石膏颗粒多出现在清洁对照点颗粒物样品中;在清洁对照点还观察到了生物质颗粒.PM₁₀的数量-粒度分布呈双峰分布,主峰为0.2～0.5μm,次峰为在1～2.5μm但PM₁₀的体积-粒度分布呈单峰分布,在1～2.5μm粒度范围内.综合分析得出,虽然粗颗粒,主要是矿物颗粒,在数量上对PM₁₀贡献很小,但是对总体积,因此对总质量的贡献可能很大但在PM_2.5中,烟尘集合体在数量和体积上均占优势.     

城市植物叶面尘粒径和几种重金属(Cu、Zn、Cr、Cd、Pb、Ni)的分布特征

为研究城市植物叶面尘粒径及重金属元素(Cu、Zn、Cr、Cd、Pb、Ni)的分布规律和污染特征,以西安市不同功能区大叶女贞(Ligus-trum lucidum)和小叶女贞(Ligustrum quihoui)叶面尘为研究对象,用激光粒度分析仪测定叶面尘的粒径分布,用原子吸收分光光度计测定叶面尘重金属质量比,并探讨了叶面尘重金属的可能来源。结果表明,大叶女贞和小叶女贞叶面尘粒径小于50μm。前者叶面尘粒径累积曲线呈双峰分布,平均粒径和粒径峰值从大到小为相对清洁区、工业区、居住文教区、交通枢纽区、商业区;后者呈单峰分布,平均粒径和粒径峰值由大到小为工业区、居住文教区、交通枢纽区、商业区和相对清洁区。不同功能区叶面尘中Cu、Zn、Cr、Cd、Pb、Ni有明显的富集,其质量比分别为(325.5±72.6)mg/kg、(3 965.6±1 112.9)mg/kg、(349.2±149.3)mg/kg、(35.3±6.8)mg/kg、(1 182.0±355.1)mg/kg、(324.1±129.5)mg/kg,为陕西省土壤背景值的7.9～20.8、29.7～77.9、2.6～11.1、262.8～489.4、26.4～71.8和6.9～18.9倍。不同功能区2物种叶面尘各重金属质量比差异显著(p<0.001),物种间差异不显著(p>0.05)。叶面尘中Zn、Pb、Ni、Cr的质量比以工业区最高,Cu、Cd以交通枢纽区最高,其次为商业区,居住文教区和相对清洁区负荷最低。研究认为,叶面降尘中的重金属可能来自外源输入。     

Revealing life‐history traits by contrasting genetic estimations with predictions of effective population size

Effective population size, a central concept in conservation biology, is now routinely estimated from genetic surveys and can also be theoretically predicted from demographic, life‐history, and mating‐system data. By evaluating the consistency of theoretical predictions with empirically estimated effective size, insights can be gained regarding life‐history characteristics and the relative impact of different life‐history traits on genetic drift. These insights can be used to design and inform management strategies aimed at increasing effective population size. We demonstrated this approach by addressing the conservation of a reintroduced population of Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus). We estimated the variance effective size (N_ev) from genetic data () and formulated predictions for the impacts on N_ev of demography, polygyny, female variance in lifetime reproductive success (RS), and heritability of female RS. By contrasting the genetic estimation with theoretical predictions, we found that polygyny was the strongest factor affecting genetic drift because only when accounting for polygyny were predictions consistent with the genetically measured N_ev. The comparison of effective‐size estimation and predictions indicated that 10.6% of the males mated per generation when heritability of female RS was unaccounted for (polygyny responsible for 81% decrease in N_ev) and 19.5% mated when female RS was accounted for (polygyny responsible for 67% decrease in N_ev). Heritability of female RS also affected N_ev; (heritability responsible for 41% decrease in N_ev). The low effective size is of concern, and we suggest that management actions focus on factors identified as strongly affecting , namely, increasing the availability of artificial water sources to increase number of dominant males contributing to the gene pool. This approach, evaluating life‐history hypotheses in light of their impact on effective population size, and contrasting predictions with genetic measurements, is a general, applicable strategy that can be used to inform conservation practice.