PROFITS,JOINT COSTS AND WATER QUALITY CONTROL1

ABSTRACT. Federal guidelines for the establishment of water quality standards prohibit degradation of the properties of all or part of the nation's aquatic resources. It is probably correct that streams, lakes and aquifers should be free of toxic substances while non-poisonous deposits should be abated. However, an extreme opposing position is held by some proponents of pollution who intend to continue discharging waste materials until forced to stop. Although it would seem otherwise, the underlying problem is that polluters' points of altercation possess merit in particular instances. Accordingly, efficient abatement will require that appropriate laws be formulated in such a manner that the nature of economic reasons for the disposal of waste materials be disclosed. Moreover, the technological ability to create byproducts from these particular elements or compounds can advance only over time. This, coupled with the fact that scientists have not developed inexpensive treatment methods which are totally effective, justifies more flexible formal regulations. Excessive rigidity of standards could impose a burden on polluters that is greater than the cost to society which the damaging firm or individual is generating. On the other hand, uniform rules in some cases could be considered so lenient as to allow flagrant contamination which unduly injures downstream users.     

基于PMA-定量PCR选择性检测技术的病原菌消毒特性研究

建立了一种核酸染料propidium monoazide(PMA)与定量PCR技术联合选择性检测活性病原菌的技术(PMA-qPCR),以大肠杆菌作为模式菌,研究了氯和一氯胺消毒对病原菌的灭活特性.结果表明,PMA染料能够分别去除99.94%和99.99%的来自非活性大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌的DNA,PMA-qPCR技术能够有效区分活性菌与非活性菌;PMA-qPCR技术得到的氯和一氯胺消毒对大肠杆菌的灭活曲线符合一级动力学方程,灭活速率常数分别为 2.24 L·(mg·min)^-1和0.0175 L·(mg·min)^-1,低于平板培养法得到的灭活速率常数;当大肠杆菌的去除率达到99%时,采用PMA-qPCR技术检测需要的ct值相比于平板培养法从0.6 mg·L^-1·min上升到0.9 mg·L^-1·min(氯消毒)和从20 mg·L^-1·min上升到超过100 mg·L^-1·min(一氯胺消毒);随着ct值的升高,常规qPCR的检测结果基本不变,因此常规qPCR不能够反映氯和一氯胺消毒对病原菌的灭活效果.作为一种新的表征消毒特性的检测技术,PMA-qPCR技术有助于更为准确地评价氯和一氯胺消毒对病原菌的灭活效果.     

Electrochemical disinfection using the gas di usion electrode system

A study on the electrochemical disinfection with H2O2 generated at the gas diffusion electrode(GDE) from active carbon/polytetrafluoroethylene was performed in a non-membrane cell.The effects of Pt load and the pore-forming agent content in GDE,and operating conditions were investigated.The experimental results showed that nearly all bacterial cultures inoculated in the secondary effluent from wastewater treatment plant could be inactivated within 30 min at a current density of 10 mA/cm 2 .The disinfection ...     

污水中溶解性有机物组分特性及其氯消毒副产物生成潜能

以城市污水厂二级出水为研究对象,采用大孔吸附树脂将污水中溶解性有机物分离成亲水性物质、疏水酸性物质、疏水中性物质和疏水碱性物质4个组分,分析了各组分的有机物特性、三维荧光光谱特征和氯消毒副产物生成潜能.结果表明,亲水性物质和疏水酸性物质分别占水样中溶解性有机碳的33%和30%,其中亲水性物质相对含有较多的生物源腐殖质类物质,疏水酸性物质相对含有更多的芳香族蛋白质和溶解性微生物代谢产物类物质.氯消毒后,亲水性物质的三卤甲烷生成潜能分别为630.4μg.L-1,占污水三卤甲烷生成潜能的73.7%.亲水性物质和疏水酸性物质的卤乙酸生成潜能分别为644.6μg.L-1和123.2μg.L-1,是污水氯消毒副产物的主要前体物.     

组合氯化消毒工艺的卤代消毒副产物生成特性

比较4种单独使用氯或组合氯化消毒工艺在较长管网停留时的卤代消毒副产物生成情况.4种工艺为单独游离氯消毒、氯胺消毒、清水池游离氯消毒后转氯胺的先氯后氨消毒、短时游离氯后转氯胺的顺序氯化消毒工艺.结果表明,游离氯消毒工艺在管网停留时间长时,卤代消毒副产物会持续大量的生成,而一氯胺消毒工艺生成的卤代消毒副产物量很低.目前使用较为普遍的先氯后氨消毒工艺与游离氯消毒相比,可以降低卤代消毒副产物的生成量,管网停留24 h时,三卤甲烷的生成量降低了9.6%,卤乙酸的生成量减低了42%.但是先氯后氨消毒工艺由于游离氯接触时间约为2 h,卤代消毒副产物已经大量生成.短时游离氯后转氯胺的顺序氯化消毒工艺,由于控制了游离氯的接触时间,可以在保障消毒工艺灭活微生物效果的同时更为有效地控制卤代消毒副产物,管网停留24 h时,三卤甲烷的生成量与单独游离氯消毒工艺相比降低了48%,卤乙酸的生成量减低了72%.因此,顺序氯化消毒工艺可以更好地控制卤代消毒副产物的生成,提高水质安全性.     

医药品和个人护理用品(PPCPs)类污染物氯化转化行为研究进展

针对水处理过程的消毒环节,着重探讨了医药品和个人护理用品(PPCPs)等新型环境污染物在氯化消毒过程中发生的转化行为,并分别针对酚类、醇类、醚类、酮类、胺类等典型结构化合物的氯化转化规律进行了归纳总结.同时,对消毒副产物所引起的潜在环境风险、健康效应进行了评述,为研发、优化该类污染物的处理工艺、提高风险管理水平提供科学依据.     

Evaluate HAA removal in biologically active carbon filters using the ICR database

The effects of biologically active carbon (BAC) filtration on haloacetic acid (HAA) levels in plant effluents and distribution systems were investigated using the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s Information Collection Rule (ICR) database. The results showed that average HAA5 concentrations in all locations were 20.4 μg·L^-1 and 29.6 μg·L^-1 in ICR plants with granular activated carbon (GAC) and ICR plants without GAC process, respectively. For plants without GAC, the highest HAA levels were observed in the quarters of April to June and July to September. However, for plants with GAC, the highest HAA levels were observed in the quarters of April to June and January to March. This HAA level profile inversely correlated well with water temperature, or biologic activity. For GAC plants, simulated distribution samples matched well with distribution system equivalent samples for Cl₃AA and THMs. For plants with and without GAC, simulated distribution samples overestimated readily biodegradable HAAs in distribution systems. The study indicated that through HAA biodegradation, GAC process plays an important role in lowering HAA levels in finished drinking water.     

臭氧氧化深度处理二级处理出水的研究

以某城市污水处理厂二级处理出水为原水,研究了臭氧氧化深度处理对水中残留有机物以及病原微生物的降解和去除效果.结果表明,臭氧投加量达到6mg/L时,DOC、UV254、色度的去除率分别为15.49%、36.36%、73.61%,环境激素类痕量有机物邻苯二甲酸二丁酯(DBP)和邻苯二甲酸二(2-乙基己基)酯(DEHP)的去除率分别为37.29%和14.6%,三维荧光光谱荧光峰的各区域有机物质平均去除率在80%以上,DBP出水浓度为2.64mg/L,DEHP出水浓度为1.4mg/L,满足《城市污水再生利用地下水回灌水质》(GB/T 19772-2005)的标准.臭氧投加量达到10mg/L时,出水中指示性微生物粪大肠菌群仍接近103CFU/L,5mg/L有效氯消毒后出水粪大肠菌群仍接近10CFU/L,6mg/L臭氧与5mg/L有效氯组合消毒出水的粪大肠菌群下降至3CFU/L,满足《城市污水再生利用景观环境用水水质》(GB/T 18921-2002)的标准.三卤甲烷(THMs)的生成量随着有效氯投加量的增加而增加,臭氧与氯组合消毒过程与氯单独消毒过程相比,THMs生成量减少了78.08%.     

气体扩散电极体系的电化学消毒

以自制活性炭/聚四氟乙烯(PTFE)气体扩散电极在无隔膜体系发生H2O2进行电化学消毒的系统研究,探讨了膜电极中PTFE质量分数WPTFE对氧气电还原特性的影响,研究了膜电极中载铂量WPt和造孔剂含量WNH4HCO3、外部操作条件pH值、氧气流速、溶液含盐量和电流密度对杀菌效率的影响.结果表明,WPTFE对H2O2的产率有明显的影响:产H2O2的峰电流先是随着WPTFE的增加而增大,然后减小.当WPTFE=50%时,峰电流最高.杀菌效果随着载铂量的提高而改善,WPt增加到4‰,杀菌效果和WPt=3‰时的杀菌效果基本相当.适量造孔剂的添加有效地改善了杀菌效果.杀菌效率随着pH值的下降迅速提高;该体系pH值适用范围较广:当原水细菌总数为106cfu.ml-1,pH=3—10,以载铂量WPt=3‰的气体扩散电极作为阴极进行电解,30 min后杀菌效率均能达到80%以上.在一定范围内增加氧气流速对H2O2的产生及杀菌效率的变化无太大影响.一方面,高的氧气流速增大了水的电阻,增加了杀菌能耗,提高了气体扩散电极体系杀菌的运行成本;另一方面,高的氧气流速在一定程度上缩短了处理时间,降低了设备投资.含盐量的增加使杀菌能耗减小,因此本电化学杀菌体系更加适合于高含盐量的水.杀菌效率随电流的升高而增加,但电流较大时,杀菌效率增加幅度较小.电流密度控制在6.6 mA.cm-2较为适宜.     

评价饮水DBPs致HepG2细胞损伤的2种试验方法

应用结晶紫染色法细胞毒性试验和胞质分裂阻滞法微核试验(CBMNT)评价饮水消毒副产物(DBPs)的HepG2细胞毒性和遗传毒性,探讨该2种试验方法纳入饮水安全性评价体系的可行性.根据遗传毒性和致癌性选用了5种DBPs,分别对HepG2细胞进行染毒,结果表明,5种DBPs的细胞毒性大小排序为3-氯-4-二氯甲基-5-羟基-2(5氢)-呋喃酮(MX)>二氯乙腈>二溴乙酸>二氯乙酸>三氯乙酸,其细胞毒性潜力(%C?值)分别为89.74,283.81,1217.02,5066.81,9335.38μmol/L,该5种DBPs在一定浓度下均可致HepG2细胞微核率显著增加,表现出明显的遗传毒性,其遗传损伤能力排序与细胞毒性大小相同.可考虑将这两种实验方法纳入到饮水安全性评价体系中.