Rapid Assessment of Plant Diversity Patterns: A Methodology for Landscapes

We present a rapid, cost-efficient methodology to link plantdiversity surveys from plots to landscapes using: (1) unbiasedsite selection based on remotely sensed information; (2) multi-scale field techniques to assess plant diversity; (3)mathematical models (species-area curves) to estimate thenumber of species in larger areas corrected for within-typeheterogeneity; and (4) mathematical techniques to estimatetotal species richness and patterns of plant diversity in alandscape. We demonstrate the methodology in a 754 ha studyarea in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, U.S.A.,using four 0.025 ha and twenty-one 0.1 ha multi-scalevegetation plots. We recorded 330 plant species (1/3 thenumber of plants recorded in the 1074 km² Park) in the2.2 ha area within the plots: this represents a samplingintensity of 0.29% of the 754 ha study site. We estimated 552plant species, about half the plant species recorded in the Park,in just 0.7% of the Parks area. We show how this rapid,cost-efficient methodology: (1) produces a rich informationbase on the patterns of native plant diversity and thedistribution of non-native plant species and keystoneecosystems; and (2) can be easily adapted for other nationaland state parks, national forests, wildlife refuges, and nature reserves.     

Predicting the distributions of marine organisms at the global scale

We present and evaluate AquaMaps, a presence-only species distribution modelling system that allows the incorporation of expert knowledge about habitat usage and was designed for maximum output of standardized species range maps at the global scale. In the marine environment there is a significant challenge to the production of range maps due to large biases in the amount and location of occurrence data for most species. AquaMaps is compared with traditional presence-only species distribution modelling methods to determine the quality of outputs under equivalently automated conditions. The effect of the inclusion of expert knowledge to AquaMaps is also investigated. Model outputs were tested internally, through data partitioning, and externally against independent survey data to determine the ability of models to predict presence versus absence. Models were also tested externally by assessing correlation with independent survey estimates of relative species abundance. AquaMaps outputs compare well to the existing methods tested, and inclusion of expert knowledge results in a general improvement in model outputs. The transparency, speed and adaptability of the AquaMaps system, as well as the existing online framework which allows expert review to compensate for sampling biases and thus improve model predictions are proposed as additional benefits for public and research use alike.     

Distribution and abundance of western gray whales off northeastern Sakhalin Island, Russia, 2001’003

In 2001–2003, >60,000 km of aerial surveys and 7,700 km of vessel surveys were conducted during June to November when critically endangered Korean–Okhotsk or western gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) were present off the northeast coast of Sakhalin Island, Russia. Results of surveys in all years indicated gray whales occurred in predominantly two areas, (1) adjacent to Piltun Bay, and (2) offshore from Chayvo Bay, hereafter referred to as the Piltun and offshore feeding areas. In the Piltun feeding area, the majority of whales were observed in waters shallower than 20 m and were distributed from several hundred meters to ∼ 5 km from the shoreline. In the offshore feeding area during all years, the distribution of gray whales extended from southwest to northeast in waters 30–65 m in depth. During all years, the distribution and abundance of whales changed in both the Piltun and offshore feeding areas, and both north–south and inshore–offshore movements were documented within and between feeding seasons. The discovery of a significant number of whales feeding in the offshore area each year was a substantial finding of this study and raises questions regarding western gray whale abundance and population levels, feeding behavior and ecology, and individual site-fidelity. Fluctuations in the number of whales observed within the Piltun and offshore feeding areas and few sightings outside of these two areas indicate that gray whales move between the Piltun and offshore feeding areas during their summer–fall feeding season. Seasonal shifts in the distribution and abundance of gray whales between and within both the Piltun and offshore feeding areas are thought, in part, to be a response to seasonal changes in the distribution and abundance of prey. However, the mechanism driving the movements of whales along the northeast coast of Sakhalin Island is likely very complex and influenced by a multitude of factors. *Deceased     

Book Reviews

Books reviewed:
John Twigg and Mihir R. Bhatt, eds, Understanding Vulnerability
Joachim von Braun, Tesfaye Teklu and Patrick Webb, Famine in Africa: Causes, Responses, and Prevention
C. Emdad Haque, Hazrads in a Fickle Environment: Bangladesh
Walter Gillis Peacock, Betty Hearn Morrow and Hugh Gladwin, eds, Population and Food: Global Trends and Future Prospects
Roy Gutman and David Rieff, eds, Crimes of War: What the Public Should Know     

Influence of a botanical pesticide,azadirachtin, on ultimobranchial gland of the freshwater catfish Heteropneustes fossilis

Freshwater catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis, were subjected to 42 mg L^?1 of azadirachtin for short-term exposure (96 h) and to 10.5 mg L^?1 for long-term exposure (28 days). Six fishes were sacrificed on each time interval from control and experimental groups after 24, 48, 72, and 96 h in the short-term exposure and after 7, 14, 21, and 28 days in the long-term experiment. The calcium regulating endocrine gland, viz. the ultimobranchial gland, was fixed for histological studies. Up to 72 h of azadirachtin treatment, there was no histological alteration in the UBG (ultimobranchial gland) of H. fossilis. After 96 h exposure, the ultimobranchial cells stain feebly and the nuclear volume of these cells were slightly decreased. No histological alterations have been observed in the UBG cells up to 14 days following azadirachtin exposure. After 21 days, the cytoplasm of ultimobranchial cells was feebly stained and the nuclear volume exhibits a decrease. The nuclear volume of these cells was further decreased and the gland shows vacuolization and degeneration at certain places after 28 days azadirachtin treatment. Hence, it can be concluded that azadirachtin severely affects the physiology of calcium homeostasis in H. fossilis. Therefore, the botanical pesticides should be used carefully near aquatic reservoirs.     

Predictors for people's response to a tornado warning: Arkansas, 1 March 1997

On 1 March 1997, powerful tornadoes touched down in Arkansas (USA) on a Saturday afternoon. Twenty-six fatalities and 400 non-fatal injuries were reported. We performed a population-based cross-sectional study to determine factors associated with appropriate responses to tornado warnings. Of 146 survey participants, 140 (96 per cent) knew the difference between 'tornado watch' and 'tornado warning' and were aware of when the warning was announced. Of those 140 participants, 64 (45.7 per cent) responded to the warning by seeking shelter, and 58 (90.6 per cent) of those 64 acted within five minutes of hearing the warning. Four factors were positively associated with those seeking shelter: having graduated from high school (OR = 4.2, 95 per cent CI = 1.1-15.5); having a basement in one's house (OR = 3.8, 95 per cent exact CI = 1.1-17.1); hearing a siren (OR = 4.4, 95 per cent CI = 1.3-18.9); and having prepared a household plan of response when tornadoes occur (OR = 2.6, 95 per cent CI = 1.1-6.3). On the basis of these findings, we recommend: first, that people who live in tornadoprone areas have a personal plan of action to help them respond immediately to warnings; second, public-health education officials in areas with frequent tornadic activity should do more to educate the public about what they can do to protect themselves from a tornado; and third, that emergency-management officials planning protection measures for vulnerable communities should consider that most people have limited time (our study documented five minutes) in which to respond to a tornado warning. Thus, shelters in tornado-prone areas should be quickly accessible by residents.     

长春市西湖灌区土壤砷污染调查与评价

通过对长春市西湖灌区62个样点土壤砷含量的调查,评价该区域砷的污染状况。方法选择灌区稻田地、菜地、玉米地,以未利用土地为对照,采集耕层土壤样品,测定砷的含量,结果与吉林省土壤背景值比较,利用污染累积指数法评价砷的污染程度。结果未利用地砷含量（P〈0．05）与吉林省土壤背景值（8．38mg／kg）没有显著差剐;稻田、菜地、玉米地耕层土壤砷的算术平均值分别为12．79mg·kg^-1、11．96mg·kg^-1、11．19mg·kg^-1,明显高于吉林省土壤砷的背景值;三种土地利用方式下土壤砷的污染累积指数范围在1．90-1．17之间,并且土壤累积指数随着距污灌渠（口）距离的增大而减小。结论长期利用污水灌溉,导致砷在长春市西湖灌区耕层产生累积．土壤受到一定程度的污染。应当引起关注。     

8种中药提取物对植物病原真菌的抑制活性

研究目的是改良植物源杀菌剂的筛选思路,降低植物源农药的毒残留,寻找效果较持久的植物源杀菌剂.通过筛选提取常见且具有强抗逆性的植株如柳、盐肤木等植物叶中活性抑菌成分,寻找低毒持效的杀菌剂.从试验数据分析得出,在粗提物质量浓度为50mg/mL时,连翘、盐肤木对3种供试植物病原菌抑制效果显著,抑制率均在65%以上,柳叶、马尾松针、臭椿、茵陈蒿的粗提物对至少两种植物病原菌的菌丝生长速率抑制率在50%以上;香槐和枫杨叶活性较低,仅对其中一种病原菌活性达到50%;柳叶、马尾松针、臭椿叶对两种病原菌气生菌丝的生长状况具有明显的抑制作用;盐肤木粗提物的抑制作用具有较好的延续性,因此连翘、盐肤木作为植物源杀菌剂具有深入研究的价值.     

Cross-sectional survey methods to assess retrospectively mortality in humanitarian emergencies

Since the rates and causes of mortality are critical indicators of the overall health of a population, it is important to evaluate mortality even where no complete vital statistics reporting exists. Such settings include humanitarian emergencies. Experience in cross-sectional survey methods to assess retrospectively crude, age-specific, and maternal mortality in stable settings has been gained over the past 40 years, and methods appropriate to humanitarian emergencies have been developed. In humanitarian emergencies, crude and age-specific mortality can be gauged using methods based on the enumeration of individuals resident in randomly selected households—frequently referred to as a household census. Under-five mortality can also be assessed through a modified prior birth history method in which a representative sample of reproductive-aged women are questioned about dates of child births and deaths. Maternal mortality can be appraised via the initial identification of maternal deaths in the study population and a subsequent investigation to determine the cause of each death.