Pseudoreplication in Tropical Forests and the Resulting Effects on Biodiversity Conservation

Tropical forest ecosystems are threatened by habitat conversion and other anthropogenic actions. Timber production forests can augment the conservation value of primary forest reserves, but studies of logging effects often yield contradictory findings and thus inhibit efforts to develop clear conservation strategies. We hypothesized that much of this variability reflects a common methodological flaw, simple pseudoreplication, that confounds logging effects with preexisting spatial variation. We reviewed recent studies of the effects of logging on biodiversity in tropical forests (n = 77) and found that 68% were definitively pseudoreplicated while only 7% were definitively free of pseudoreplication. The remaining proportion could not be clearly categorized. In addition, we collected compositional data on 7 taxa in 24 primary forest research plots and systematically analyzed subsets of these plots to calculate the probability that a pseudoreplicated comparison would incorrectly identify a treatment effect. Rates of false inference (i.e., the spurious detection of a treatment effect) were >0.5 for 2 taxa, 0.3–0.5 for 2 taxa, and <0.3 for 3 taxa. Our findings demonstrate that tropical conservation strategies are being informed by a body of literature that is rife with unwarranted inferences. Addressing pseudoreplication is essential for accurately assessing biodiversity in logged forests, identifying the relative merits of specific management practices and landscape configurations, and effectively balancing conservation with timber production in tropical forests. Pseudoreplicación en Bosques Tropicales y Efectos Resultantes Sobre la Conservación de Biodiversidad     

Virtual Garden Computer Program for use in Exploring the Elements of Biodiversity People Want in Cities

Urban ecology is emerging as an integrative science that explores the interactions of people and biodiversity in cities. Interdisciplinary research requires the creation of new tools that allow the investigation of relations between people and biodiversity. It has been established that access to green spaces or nature benefits city dwellers, but the role of species diversity in providing psychological benefits remains poorly studied. We developed a user‐friendly 3‐dimensional computer program (Virtual Garden [ www.tinyurl.com/3DVirtualGarden ]) that allows people to design their own public or private green spaces with 95 biotic and abiotic features. Virtual Garden allows researchers to explore what elements of biodiversity people would like to have in their nearby green spaces while accounting for other functions that people value in urban green spaces. In 2011, 732 participants used our Virtual Garden program to design their ideal small public garden. On average gardens contained 5 different animals, 8 flowers, and 5 woody plant species. Although the mathematical distribution of flower and woody plant richness (i.e., number of species per garden) appeared to be similar to what would be expected by random selection of features, 30% of participants did not place any animal species in their gardens. Among those who placed animals in their gardens, 94% selected colorful species (e.g., ladybug [Coccinella septempunctata], Great Tit [Parus major], and goldfish), 53% selected herptiles or large mammals, and 67% selected non‐native species. Older participants with a higher level of education and participants with a greater concern for nature designed gardens with relatively higher species richness and more native species. If cities are to be planned for the mutual benefit of people and biodiversity and to provide people meaningful experiences with urban nature, it is important to investigate people's relations with biodiversity further. Virtual Garden offers a standardized tool with which to explore these relations in different environments, cultures, and countries. It can also be used by stakeholders (e.g., city planners) to consider people's opinions of local design. Programa de Computadora de Jardín Virtual para Uso en la Exploración de los Elementos de Biodiversidad que la Gente Desea en las Ciudades     

Lichen Conservation in Heavily Managed Boreal Forests

Lichens are an important component of the boreal forest, where they are long lived, tend to accumulate in older stands, and are a major food source for the threatened woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). To be fully sustainable, silvicultural practices in the boreal forest must include the conservation of ecological integrity. Dominant forest management practices, however, have short‐term negative effects on lichen diversity, particularly the application of herbicides. To better understand the long‐term effects of forest management, we examined lichen regeneration in 35 mixed black spruce (Picea mariana) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forest stands across northern Ontario to determine recovery following logging and postharvest silvicultural practices. Our forest stands were 25–40 years old and had undergone 3 common sivilcultural treatments that included harvested and planted; harvested, planted, and treated with N‐[phosphonomethyl] glycine (glyphosate); and harvested, planted, and treated with 2,4‐dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4‐D). Forest stands with herbicide treatments had lower lichen biomass and higher beta and gamma diversity than planted stands that were not treated chemically or control stands. In northwestern Ontario, planted stands that were not treated chemically had significantly greater (p < 0.05) alpha diversity than stands treated with herbicides or control stands. Our results show that common silvicultural practices do not emulate natural disturbances caused by wildfires in the boreal forest for the lichen community. We suggest a reduction in the amount of chemical application be considered in areas where lichen biomass is likely to be high and where the recovery of woodland caribou is an objective. Conservación de Líquenes en Bosques Boreales Manejados Intensivamente     

Hunting Effects on Favourable Conservation Status of Highly Inbred Swedish Wolves

The wolf (Canis lupus) is classified as endangered in Sweden by the Swedish Species Information Centre, which is the official authority for threat classification. The present population, which was founded in the early 1980s, descends from 5 individuals. It is isolated and highly inbred, and on average individuals are more related than siblings. Hunts have been used by Swedish authorities during 2010 and 2011 to reduce the population size to its upper tolerable level of 210 wolves. European Union (EU) biodiversity legislation requires all member states to promote a concept called “favourable conservation status” (FCS) for a series of species including the wolf. Swedish national policy stipulates maintenance of viable populations with sufficient levels of genetic variation of all naturally occurring species. Hunting to reduce wolf numbers in Sweden is currently not in line with national and EU policy agreements and will make genetically based FCS criteria less achievable for this species. We suggest that to reach FCS for the wolf in Sweden the following criteria need to be met: (1) a well‐connected, large, subdivided wolf population over Scandinavia, Finland, and the Russian Karelia‐Kola region should be reestablished, (2) genetically effective size (N_e) of this population is in the minimum range of N_e = 500–1000, (3) Sweden harbors a part of this total population that substantially contributes to the total N_e and that is large enough to not be classified as threatened genetically or according to IUCN criteria, and (4) average inbreeding levels in the Swedish population are <0.1. Efectos de la Cacería sobre el Estatus de Conservación Favorable de Lobos Suecos con Endogamia Alta     

Post-flooding disaster crop diversity recovery: a case study of Cowpea in Mozambique

To restore food security to a traditional African cropping system following a sudden loss of seed, genetic diversity must be re-established. This study examines the extent to which Cowpea diversity was reinstated two years after a flood disaster in Gaza Province, Mozambique. The contribution that seed from various sources made to the recovery was assessed using semi-structured interviews and morphological and molecular data. Data suggest that diversity had recovered to some extent yet there was evidence of a narrowing of the genetic base, with fewer rare alleles and differences in the distribution of allele frequencies. Although the main channels for accessing seed after the flood were seed relief and markets, these sources contributed to minimal and different diversity. It appears that diversity was regained primarily through social networking in the form of loans or gifts of seed from friends and relatives. The results of the study are discussed in relation to seed relief approaches.     

长江上游向家坝库区鸟类多样性研究及生境价值评估

2011年利用样线法对长江上游向家坝库区夏、秋季鸟类进行了实地考察，共记录110种鸟类，隶属15目39科。通过5个调查点、2个对照点不同生境鸟类的多样性研究发现：（1）夏、秋季库区不同生境鸟类的Shannon Wiener 指数较低，几乎均未超过1.5，鸟类物种多样性相对贫乏；（2）库区各生境鸟类Pielou指数均超过了0.75，说明库区环境虽以人工植被为主，但并不单调；（3）阶地疏林灌丛、竹林与常绿落叶阔叶混交林的鸟类相似性差异最小〖JP2〗，而二者与芦苇、荩草丛滩地的差异最大，库区鸟类在不同生境中的分布存在着显著不同。在上述研究的基础上，从物种多样性和河流景观保护的角度，对库区鸟类的不同生境类型进行多要素综合分析，结果显示: 山地森林生境的物种多样性相对丰富，生态价值最高，而河滩和阶地疏林灌丛、竹林生境具备一定的景观特色,也有相当的生态价值     

杉木地理种源遗传变异的RAPD分析

应用随机扩增多态性DNA技术对我国12个有代表性的杉木地理种源遗传多样性进行分析，从80个随要引物中筛选出20个进行扩增，共扩增出149个DNA片段，其中具多态性的片段有115个，占77．18％％，表明极木地理种源间具有丰富的DNA序列多态性、平均每个引物提供7．45个RAPD标记的信息量，扩增出的DNA片段大小一般为150到2000bp范围之间，12个杉木地理种源间遗传距离变幅为0．193－0．4467，聚类结果表明，在0．2664处，广东信宜，广西梧州，湖南会同，湖南江华，贵州锦屏，江西全南聚为一类，福建沙县，浙江开化，湖北咸宁，安徽休宁聚为一类，四川雅安，陕西南郑各为一类，图2表2参15     

赣江一级支流浮游植物群落动态特征分析——以袁河为例

2009年6、11月和2010年4月共3个水情期（即丰、枯和平水期）对赣江下游一级支流袁河的浮游植物群落结构特征开展河流生态学调查分析。调查共发现浮游植物109种，隶属于6门61属。其中绿藻门物种种类数最多，共27属54种，其次为硅藻门，共15属30种，第三是蓝藻门11属12种。此外，裸藻门3属6种，甲藻门3属4种，隐藻门2属3种。调查样点的浮游植物丰度均处于1.12×105～129.20×105 ind./L，丰水期和枯水期浮游植物以蓝藻为优势类群，平水期则硅藻占绝对优势。丰水期浮游植物优势属为脆杆藻属和席藻属，枯水期为栅藻属，针杆属，蓝隐藻属和小环藻属，到了平水期小环藻属占绝对优势。3个水情期中优势种钝脆杆藻和小席藻（丰水期）；尖尾蓝隐藻和双头针杆藻（枯水期）；梅尼小环藻（平水期）等均为污水指示种。通过生物多样性指数分析发现藻类Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数、Pielou均匀度指数和Margalef丰富度指数的变化范围分别为：1.14～2.92、0.45～0.93、0.36～0.92和0.42～2.78。通过指示生物群落法和生物多样性指数法对袁河进行水质评价发现两种评价结果基本一致，袁河处于α-β-中污染状态，不同采样点间污染程度差异性较大。     

Knowing and Doing: Research Leading to Action in the Conservation of Forest Genetic Diversity of Patagonian Temperate Forests

Abstract:  Researchers dealing with conservation subjects usually do not put the results of their work into practice, even when the primary purpose of their research is the preservation of biodiversity. In the South American temperate forests we identified an area with the highest genetic diversity in Argentina of Nothofagus nervosa, one of the most relevant southern beech species. Based on the information of our scientific study and our recommendations, the authorities of Lanin National Park changed the protection status of this area to avoid logging. The new forestry management plans include consideration of "high genetic diversity" in decisions on where logging will be allowed. Results of our initial genetic study induced the analysis of biodiversity at the species and ecosystems levels, which yielded results similar to our genetic studies. A strong connection among researchers and managers from the onset of our study and the awareness of the former about the importance of the implementation of the research work were key to bridging the gap between conservation research and conservation practice.     

The relationship between diversity profiles,evenness and species richness based on partial ordering

Problems with the notion of evenness, such as ambiguity, proliferation of indices, choice of indices, etc. can be overcome by a more fundamental, mathematical approach. We show that the Lorenz curve is an adequate representation of evenness. The corresponding Lorenz order induces a partial order in the set of equivalent abundance vectors. Also diversity can adequately be studied through a partial order and represented by a curve derived from the classical Lorenz curve. This curve is known as the intrinsic diversity profile (or k-dominance curve) and was introduced by Patil and Taillie (1979) and Lambshead et al. (1981).