RESEARCH: Shrub Propagation Techniques for Biological Control of Invading Tree Species

Cornus stolonifera, Salix petiolaris, and Spiraea alba clones already located within the corridor of an electrical power line. To establish the efficiency of treatments, we examined the statistical differences of growth traits between species and treatments. An analysis of the effects of layering shows, after the first growth season, differences for all growth traits in only one species, Spiraea alba. After the second growth season, we observed the development of new aerial stems. Layering favors horizontal expansion of shrubs over height development. The third year after treatment, the effect of layering is reduced except for Cornus stolonifera, which continuously increases, as shown by the significant progression of the clone issued from the layer even five years after treatments. With the cutting back technique, we expected a distinct vertical growth of the shrubs at the expense of increasing the crown diameter. This technique would be best associated with the rejuvenation of clones, followed by a layering of new shoots to allow a horizontal expansion of the shrubs. Therefore, the formation of a dense shrub community by layering should be considered a valuable approach for the biological control of undesirable trees in powerline rights-of-way.     

Status of the Riparian Ecosystem in the Upper San Pedro River, Arizona: Application of an Assessment Model

A portion of Arizona’s San Pedro River is managed as a National Riparian Conservation Area but is potentially affected by ground-water withdrawals beyond the conservation area borders. We applied an assessment model to the Conservation Area as a basis for monitoring long-term changes in riparian ecosystem condition resulting from changes in river water availability, and collected multi-year data on a subset of the most sensitive bioindicators. The assessment model is based on nine vegetation bioindicators that are sensitive to changes in surface water or ground water. Site index scores allow for placement into one of three condition classes, each reflecting particular ranges for site hydrology and vegetation structure. We collected the bioindicator data at 26 sites distributed among 14 reaches that had similar stream flow hydrology (spatial flow intermittency) and geomorphology (channel sinuosity, flood-plain width). Overall, 39% of the riparian corridor fell within condition class 3 (the wettest condition), 55% in condition class 2, and 6% in the driest condition class. Condition class 3 reaches have high cover of herbaceous wetland plants (e.g., Juncus and Schoenoplectus spp.) along the perennial stream channel and dense, multi-aged Populus-Salix woodlands in the flood plain, sustained by shallow ground water in the stream alluvium. In condition class 2, intermittent stream flows result in low cover of streamside wetland herbs, but Populus-Salix remain abundant in the flood plain. Perennial wetland plants are absent from condition class 1, reflecting highly intermittent stream flows; the flood plain is vegetated by Tamarixa small tree that tolerates the deep and fluctuating ground water levels that typify this reach type. Abundance of herbaceous wetland plants and growth rate of Salix gooddingii varied between years with different stream flow rates, indicating utility of these measures for tracking short-term responses to hydrologic change. Repeat measurement of all bioindicators will indicate long-term trends in hydro-vegetational condition.     

Interactions between accumulation of trace elements and macronutrients in Salix caprea after inoculation with rhizosphere microorganisms

Although the beneficial effects on growth and trace element accumulation in Salix spp. inoculated with microbes are well known, little information is available on the interactions among trace elements and macronutrients. The main purpose of this study was to assess the effect of phytoaugmentation with the rhizobacteria Agromyces sp., Streptomyces sp., and the combination of each of them with the fungus Cadophora finlandica on biomass production and the accumulation of selected trace elements (Zn, Cd, Fe) and macronutrients (Ca, K, P and Mg) in Salix caprea grown on a moderately polluted soil. Dry matter production was significantly enhanced only upon inoculation with Agromyces sp. Regarding the phytoextraction of Cd and Zn, shoot concentrations were mostly increased after inoculation with Streptomyces sp. and Agromyces sp. + C. finlandica. These two treatments also showed higher translocation factors from roots to the leaves for both Cd and Zn. The accumulation of Cd and Zn in shoots was related to increased concentrations of K. This suggests that microorganisms that contribute to enhanced phytoextraction of Cd and Zn affect also the solubility and thus phytoavailability of K. This study suggests that the phytoextraction of Zn and Cd can be improved by inoculation with selected microbial strains.     

水培条件下秋华柳对重金属Cd的富集特性及光合响应

采用水培试验的方法,研究了不同Cd胁迫浓度〔ρ(Cd2+)分别为0、1、5、10和20 mg/L〕下秋华柳的生长、光合耐性及其对Cd的富集特性和转移能力.结果表明:①随着Cd胁迫浓度的升高,秋华柳生长所受到的抑制程度有所增加.除20 mg/L处理组外,其余各处理组的耐性指数(TI)均大于70,表现出较高的耐性.②低Cd胁迫浓度(1 mg/L)下秋华柳具有较好的光合耐性,当Cd胁迫浓度达到20 mg/L时,秋华柳的光合系统才受到明显影响.③秋华柳对外源Cd的富集能力较强,随着Cd胁迫浓度的升高,秋华柳所积累的Cd显著增加且主要积累于根部,表现为叶<茎<根.当Cd胁迫浓度小于5 mg/L时,秋华柳根部吸收的Cd向地上部分转移的效果较好.试验显示,秋华柳对于较低Cd胁迫浓度(≤10 mg/L)具有较好的耐受性和富集能力,可用于三峡库区消落带表层土壤Cd污染严重区域进行植物修复.      

青海湖流域人工治沙措施防风固沙效益初步研究

青海湖流域土地沙漠化现象日趋严重,防治土地沙漠化的工作刻不容缓。本文通过野 外实验、室内分析,以粗糙度、风沙流结构、输沙率等为指标,评估了人工治沙措施在青海湖 流域沙区的防风固沙效益。采取人工治理措施设置麦草方格沙障,配合种植沙棘（Hippophae rhamnoides）以或乌柳（Salix cheilophila）、沙棘间种,起到了明显的防风固沙效果。采取人工 治理措施的样地,近地表风速降低,粗糙度变大,输沙量减少,风沙流结构改变。     

Characterisation of early responses to cadmium in roots of Salix matsudana Koidz

This study deals with the characterisation of early responses of roots of Salix matsudana in respect to oxidative stress, subcellular distribution, and chemical forms when exposed to 50 μmol/L Cd. Within 12 h, the root length is reduced and the contents of O₂^??, H₂O₂, and malondialdehyde are increased by 49%, 43%, and 35%. Cd is mainly retained in the cell walls; small amounts are distributed into other cell organelles. The largest proportion of Cd is found in the NaCl extractable, pectate-, and protein-integrated fraction.     

V系列转基因银中杨(Salix alba var Tristis)与非转基因组长势差异的初步分析

经对鄂尔多斯市达拉特旗树林召镇的转基因试验林中的v系列转基因银中杨与非转基因对照组的生长性状的对比研究证明:该转基因系列具有较强的环境适应性,生长状况明显优于非转基因杨树。     

Quantifying water savings from willow removal in Australian streams

Willows (Salix Spp.), while not endemic to Australia, form dense stands in many stream locations. Australia has been experiencing a long-term drought and potential water extraction by willows is considered a significant problem, although little global scientific evidence exists to support such concerns. The extent of willow occupation in Australian streams has been deemed large enough to warrant investigation of their evapotranspiration rates and quantification of potential water savings from willow removal. Willows situated in-stream (permanent water) and on stream banks (semi-permanent water) were monitored over three summers from August 2005 to May 2008 employing heat pulse velocity sap flux sensors and field measurement of water balance components. A comparative study of native riparian River Red Gum trees was also undertaken. Differences in transpiration flux rates between willows with permanent and semi-permanent access to water were substantial, with peak transpiration of 15.2 mm day(-1) and 2.3 mm day(-1) respectively. Water balance calculations over the three year period indicate that an average potential net water saving of 5.5 ML year(-1)ha(-1) of crown projected area is achievable by removal of in-stream willows with permanent access to water. On stream banks, replacement of willows with native riparian vegetation will have no net impact on site water balances. Results also indicate that under the influence of natural environmental events such as drought, heat stress and willow sawfly infestation, evapotranspiration rates from in-stream willows remain greater than that from open water. These results will have important implications in environmental management of willows and in future water resource allocation and planning in Australia.     

Dendroremediation of trinitrotoluene (TNT) Part 2: Fate of radio-labelled TNT in trees

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE: Problems of long-term existence of the environmental contaminant 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and necessities for the use of trees ('dendroremediation') in sustainable phytoremediation strategies for TNT are described in the first part of this paper. Aims of the second part are estimation of [14C]-TNT uptake, localisation of TNT-derived radioactivity in mature tree tissues, and the determination of the degree of TNT-degradation during dendroremediation processes. METHODS: Four-year-old trees of hybrid willow (Salix spec., clone EW-20) and of Norway spruce (Picea abies) were cultivated in sand or ammunition plant soil (AP-soil) in wick supplied growth vessels. Trees were exposed to a single pulse application with water solved [U-14C]-TNT reaching a calculated initial concentration of 5.2 mg TNT per kg dry soil. Two months after application overall radioactivity and extractability of 14C were determined in sand/soil, roots, stem-wood, stem-bark, branches, leaves, needles, and Picea May sprouts. Root extracts were analysed by radio TLC. RESULTS: 60 days after [14C]-TNT application, recovered 14C is accumulated in roots (70% for sand variants, 34% for AP-soil variant). 15-28% of 14C remained in sand and 61% in AP-soil. 3.3 to 14.4% of 14C were located in aboveground tree portions. Above-ground distribution of 14C differed considerably between the angiosperm Salix and the gymnosperm Picea. In Salix, nearly half of above-ground-14C was detected in bark-free wood, whereas in Picea older needles contained most of the above-ground-14C (54-69%). TNT was readily transformed in tree tissue. Approximately 80% of 14C was non-extractably bound in roots, stems, wood, and leaves or needles. Only quantitatively less important stem-bark of Salix and Picea and May shoots of Picea showed higher extraction yields (up to 56%). DISCUSSION: Pulse application of [14C]-TNT provided evidence for the first time that after TNT-exposure, in tree root extracts, no TNT and none of the known metabolites, mono-amino-dinitrotoluenes (ADNT), diaminonitrotoluenes (DANT), trinitrobenzene (TNB) and no dinitrotoluenes (DNTs) were present. Extractable portions of 14C were small and contained at least three unknown metabolites (or groups) for Salix. In Picea, four extractable metabolites (or groups) were detected, where only one metabolite (or group) seemed to be identical for Salix and Picea. All unknown extractables were of a very polar nature. CONCLUSIONS: Results of complete TNT-transformation in trees explain some of our previous findings with 'cold analytics', where no TNT and no ADNT-metabolites could be found in tissues of TNT-exposed Salix and Populus clones. It is concluded that 'cold' tissue analysis of tree organs is not suited for quantitative success control of phytoremediation in situ. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OUTLOOK: Both short rotation Salicaceae trees and conifer forests possess a dendroremediation potential for TNT polluted soils. The degradation capacity and the large biomass of adult forest trees with their woody compartments of roots and stems may be utilized for detoxification of soil xenobiotics.     

INUNDATION TOLERANCES OF RIPARIAN WILLOWS AND COTTONWOODS1

ABSTRACT: Throughout western North America, willows and cottonwoods are dominant woody plants in riparian zones, streamside areas that are periodically flooded. This study compared tolerances of willows‐Salix discolor, S. exigua, and S. lutea‐and cottonwoods‐Populus angustifolia, P balsamifera, and P deltoides‐to water inundation, one component of stream flooding. Rooted cuttings were grown for 152 days in 10 cm tall pots in water depths from 2.5 to 10 cm (inundated). Shoot and root elongation growth of the inundated cottonwoods were reduced 23 and 45 percent, while S. lutea was relatively unaffected and the inundated sandbar willow, S. exigua, displayed 72 and 43 percent increases in shoot and root elongation. The inundation reduced transpiration in P deltoides and for mature P balsamifera trees that were flooded by a small reservoir on Willow Creek, Alberta. Those flooded trees died in their second year of inundation. The greater inundation tolerance of willows versus cottonwoods is consistent with observations along Midvale Creek, Montana, where beaver dams created a pond in which P trichocarpa died while willows thrived after five years. These patterns of inundation tolerance are consistent with elevational zones of occurrence as willows‐and particularly the sandbar willow—occur at low elevations close to the stream. The understanding of inundation tolerances should assist in the provision of hydrologic patterns that will conserve and restore these shrubs and trees along streams and could permit their establishment along artificial reservoirs.