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The development of energy driven efflux pumps which keep toxic element levels low in the interior of the cell. Such mechanisms have been described for Cd(II) and As(V).
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Oxidation (e.g. AsO2‐ to AsO4 3‐) or reduction (e.g. Hg2+ to Hg0) can enzymatically and intracellularly convert a more toxic form of an element to a less toxic form.
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The biosynthesis of intracellular polymers which serve as traps for the removal of metal ions from solution such as traps have been described for cadmium, calcium, nickel and copper.
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The binding of metal ions to cell surfaces.
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The precipitation of insoluble metal complexes (e.g. metal sulfides and metal oxides) at cell surfaces.
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Biomethylation and transport through cell‐membranes by diffusion controlled processes.