The modern theory of biological evolution: an expanded synthesis

In 1858, two naturalists, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, independently proposed natural selection as the basic mechanism responsible for the origin of new phenotypic variants and, ultimately, new species. A large body of evidence for this hypothesis was published in Darwins Origin of Species one year later, the appearance of which provoked other leading scientists like August Weismann to adopt and amplify Darwins perspective. Weismanns neo-Darwinian theory of evolution was further elaborated, most notably in a series of books by Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ernst Mayr, Julian Huxley and others. In this article we first summarize the history of life on Earth and provide recent evidence demonstrating that Darwins dilemma (the apparent missing Precambrian record of life) has been resolved. Next, the historical development and structure of the modern synthesis is described within the context of the following topics: paleobiology and rates of evolution, mass extinctions and species selection, macroevolution and punctuated equilibrium, sexual reproduction and recombination, sexual selection and altruism, endosymbiosis and eukaryotic cell evolution, evolutionary developmental biology, phenotypic plasticity, epigenetic inheritance and molecular evolution, experimental bacterial evolution, and computer simulations (in silico evolution of digital organisms). In addition, we discuss the expansion of the modern synthesis, embracing all branches of scientific disciplines. It is concluded that the basic tenets of the synthetic theory have survived, but in modified form. These sub-theories require continued elaboration, particularly in light of molecular biology, to answer open-ended questions concerning the mechanisms of evolution in all five kingdoms of life.Dedicated to Prof. Dr. Dr. hc mult. Ernst Mayr on the occasion of his 100th birthdayThis revised version was published online in March 2004, with corrections to the caption of Figure 6.     

Inter and intra-population variation in shoaling and boldness in the zebrafish (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Danio rerio</Emphasis>)

Population differences in anti-predator behaviour have been demonstrated in several species, although less is known about the genetic basis of these traits. To determine the extent of genetic differences in boldness (defined as exploration of a novel object) and shoaling within and between zebrafish (Danio rerio) populations, and to examine the genetic basis of shoaling behaviour in general, we carried out a study that involved laboratory-raised fish derived from four wild-caught populations. Controlling for differences in rearing environment, significant inter-population differences were found in boldness but not shoaling. A larger shoaling experiment was also performed using one of the populations as the basis of a North Carolina type II breeding design (174 fish in total) to estimate heritability of shoaling tendency. A narrow-sense heritability estimate of 0.40 was obtained, with no apparent dominance effects.     

On vortex loops and filaments: three examples of numerical predictions of flows containing vortices

Vortex motion plays a dominant role in many flow problems. This article aims at demonstrating some of the characteristic features of vortices with the aid of numerical solutions of the governing equations of fluid mechanics, the Navier-Stokes equations. Their discretized forms will first be reviewed briefly. Thereafter three problems of fluid flow involving vortex loops and filaments are discussed. In the first, the time-dependent motion and the mutual interaction of two colliding vortex rings are discussed, predicted in good agreement with experimental observations. The second example shows how vortex rings are generated, move, and interact with each other during the suction stroke in the cylinder of an automotive engine. The numerical results, validated with experimental data, suggest that vortex rings can be used to influence the spreading of the fuel droplets prior to ignition and reduce the fuel consumption. In the third example, it is shown that vortices can also occur in aerodynamic flows over delta wings at angle of attack as well as pipe flows: of particular interest for technical applications of these flows is the situation in which the vortex cores are destroyed, usually referred to as vortex breakdown or bursting. Although reliable breakdown criteria could not be established as yet, the numerical predictions obtained so far are found to agree well with the few experimental data available in the recent literature.