Defining and Evaluating the Umbrella Species Concept for Conserving and Restoring Landscape Connectivity

Conserving or restoring landscape connectivity between patches of breeding habitat is a common strategy to protect threatened species from habitat fragmentation. By managing connectivity for some species, usually charismatic vertebrates, it is often assumed that these species will serve as conservation umbrellas for other species. We tested this assumption by developing a quantitative method to measure overlap in dispersal habitat of 3 threatened species—a bird (the umbrella), a butterfly, and a frog—inhabiting the same fragmented landscape. Dispersal habitat was determined with Circuitscape, which was parameterized with movement data collected for each species. Despite differences in natural history and breeding habitat, we found substantial overlap in the spatial distributions of areas important for dispersal of this suite of taxa. However, the intuitive umbrella species (the bird) did not have the highest overlap with other species in terms of the areas that supported connectivity. Nevertheless, we contend that when there are no irreconcilable differences between the dispersal habitats of species that cohabitate on the landscape, managing for umbrella species can help conserve or restore connectivity simultaneously for multiple threatened species with different habitat requirements. Definición y Evaluación del Concepto de Especie Paraguas para Conservar y Restaurar la Conectividad de Paisajes     

Effects of Exurban Development and Temperature on Bird Species in the Southern Appalachians

Land‐use dynamics and climatic gradients have large effects on many terrestrial systems. Exurban development, one of the fastest growing forms of land use in the United States, may affect wildlife through habitat fragmentation and building presence may alter habitat quality. We studied the effects of residential development and temperature gradients on bird species occurrence at 140 study sites in the southern Appalachian Mountains (North Carolina, U.S.A.) that varied with respect to building density and elevation. We used occupancy models to determine 36 bird species’ associations with building density, forest canopy cover, average daily mean temperature, and an interaction between building density and mean temperature. Responses varied with habitat requirement, breeding range, and migration distance. Building density and mean temperature were both included in the top occupancy models for 19 of 36 species and a building density by temperature interaction was included in models for 8 bird species. As exurban development expands in the southern Appalachians, interior forest species and Neotropical migrants are likely to decline, but shrubland or edge species are not likely to benefit. Overall, effects of building density were greater than those of forest canopy cover. Exurban development had a greater effect on birds at high elevations due to a greater abundance of sensitive forest‐interior species and Neotropical migrants. A warming climate may exacerbate these negative effects. Efectos del Desarrollo Exurbano y de la Temperatura sobre Especies de Aves en las Apalaches del Sur     

Prioritizing Wetland Restoration for Sediment Yield Reduction: A Conceptual Model

In a climate of limited resources, it is often necessary to prioritize restoration efforts geographically. The synoptic approach is an ecologically based tool for geographic prioritization of wetland protection and restoration efforts. The approach was specifically designed to incorporate best professional judgment in cases where information and resources are otherwise limited. Synoptic assessments calculate indices for functional criteria in subunits (watersheds, counties, etc.) of a region and then rank the subunits. Ranks can be visualized in region-scale maps which enable managers to identify areas where efforts optimize functional performance on a regional scale. In this paper, we develop a conceptual model for prioritizing watersheds whose wetlands can be restored to reduce total sediment yield at the watershed outlet. The conceptual model is designed to rank watersheds but not individual wetlands within a watershed. The synoptic approach is valid for applying the sediment yield reduction model because there is high demand for prioritizing disturbed wetlands for restoration, but there is limited, quantitative, accurate information available with which to make decisions. Furthermore, the cost of creating a comprehensive database is prohibitively high. Finally, because the model will be used for planning purposes, and, specifically, for prioritizing based on multiple decisions rather than optimizing a single decision, the consequence of prioritization errors is low. Model results cannot be treated as scientific findings. The conclusions of an assessment are based on judgement, but this judgement is guided by scientific principles and a general understanding of relevant ecological processes. The conceptual model was developed as the first step towards prioritizing of wetland restoration for sediment yield reduction in US EPA Region 4.     

Lichen Conservation in Heavily Managed Boreal Forests

Lichens are an important component of the boreal forest, where they are long lived, tend to accumulate in older stands, and are a major food source for the threatened woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). To be fully sustainable, silvicultural practices in the boreal forest must include the conservation of ecological integrity. Dominant forest management practices, however, have short‐term negative effects on lichen diversity, particularly the application of herbicides. To better understand the long‐term effects of forest management, we examined lichen regeneration in 35 mixed black spruce (Picea mariana) and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) forest stands across northern Ontario to determine recovery following logging and postharvest silvicultural practices. Our forest stands were 25–40 years old and had undergone 3 common sivilcultural treatments that included harvested and planted; harvested, planted, and treated with N‐[phosphonomethyl] glycine (glyphosate); and harvested, planted, and treated with 2,4‐dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4‐D). Forest stands with herbicide treatments had lower lichen biomass and higher beta and gamma diversity than planted stands that were not treated chemically or control stands. In northwestern Ontario, planted stands that were not treated chemically had significantly greater (p < 0.05) alpha diversity than stands treated with herbicides or control stands. Our results show that common silvicultural practices do not emulate natural disturbances caused by wildfires in the boreal forest for the lichen community. We suggest a reduction in the amount of chemical application be considered in areas where lichen biomass is likely to be high and where the recovery of woodland caribou is an objective. Conservación de Líquenes en Bosques Boreales Manejados Intensivamente     

Applying the Declining Population Paradigm: Diagnosing Causes of Poor Reproduction in the Marbled Murrelet

Abstract:  We identified six approaches to diagnosing causes of population declines and illustrate the use of the most general one ("multiple competing hypotheses") to determine which of three candidate limiting factors—food availability, nesting site availability, and nest predation—were responsible for the exceptionally poor reproduction of Marbled Murrelets (  Brachyramphus marmoratus ) in central California. We predicted how six attributes of murrelet demography, behavior, and physiology should be affected by the candidate limiting factors and tested predictions with field data collected over 2 years. The average proportion of breeders, as estimated with radiotelemetry, was low (0.31) and varied significantly between years: 0.11 in 2000 and 0.50 in 2001. Murrelets spent significantly more time foraging in 2000 than in 2001, suggesting that low food availability limited breeding in 2000. In 2001, 50% of radio-marked murrelets nested and 67% of females were in breeding condition, suggesting that enough nest sites existed for much of the population to breed. However, rates of nest failure and nest predation were high (0.84 and 0.67–0.81, respectively) and few young were produced, even when a relatively high proportion of murrelets bred. Thus, we suggest that reproduction of Marbled Murrelets in central California is limited by food availability in some years and by nest predation in others, but apparently is not limited by availability of nesting sites. The multiple-competing-hypotheses approach provides a rigorous framework for identifying causes of population declines because it integrates multiple types of data sets and can incorporate elements of other commonly used approaches.     

Presence–Absence versus Abundance Data for Monitoring Threatened Species

Abstract:  Effective detection of population trend is crucial for managing threatened species. Little theory exists, however, to assist managers in choosing the most cost-effective monitoring techniques for diagnosing trend. We present a framework for determining the optimal monitoring strategy by simulating a manager collecting data on a declining species, the Chestnut-rumped Hylacola ( Hylacola pyrrhopygia parkeri ), to determine whether the species should be listed under the IUCN (World Conservation Union) Red List. We compared the efficiencies of two strategies for detecting trend, abundance, and presence–absence surveys, under financial constraints. One might expect the abundance surveys to be superior under all circumstances because more information is collected at each site. Nevertheless, the presence–absence data can be collected at more sites because the surveyor is not obliged to spend a fixed amount of time at each site. The optimal strategy for monitoring was very dependent on the budget available. Under some circumstances, presence–absence surveys outperformed abundance surveys for diagnosing the IUCN Red List categories cost-effectively. Abundance surveys were best if the species was expected to be recorded more than 16 times/year; otherwise, presence–absence surveys were best. The relationship between the strategies we investigated is likely to be relevant for many comparisons of presence–absence or abundance data. Managers of any cryptic or low-density species who hope to maximize their success of estimating trend should find an application for our results.     

Opportunities for British Involvement in the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

The UK Science, Technology and Engineering Committee for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) was jointly established by The Fellowship of Engineering and The Royal Society, in 1990. Its purpose is to promote the aims of the IDNDR with particular reference to disaster risk reduction within developing countries.
In order to provide a forum for people with a wide range of experience in this field to meet and exchange views, the Committee convened a one-day Workshop, held at The Royal Society in London on 27 March 1992. The following is a shortened version of a position paper (originally drafted by Ian Davis and subsequently approved by the Committee), setting out seven 'priorities' for the IDNDR, which formed the basis of discussion at the Workshop.     

Germination and Establishment of the Native Plains Cottonwood (Populus deltoides Marshall subsp. monilifera) and the Exotic Russian-olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia L.)

Russian-olive ( Elaeagnus angustifolia ) is a small Eurasian tree that has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized, primarily along watercourses throughout the western United States. We examined germination and establishment of Russian-olive and plains cottonwood ( Populus deltoides ), the principal native riparian tree of the Great Plains, under a range of experimental moisture and light conditions. The fewest seedlings established under the driest conditions; seedling biomass was predictably lower in the shade; root-to-shoot ratios were higher for cottonwood, higher in the sun, and higher under drier conditions. Several interactions were also significant. The timing of germination and mortality varied between plains cottonwood and Russian-olive: cottonwood germinated in mid-June in all treatments in a single pulse with subsequent mortality; the timing and amount of Russian-olive germination differed substantially across treatments with little net mortality. Differences in life-history traits of these species, including seed size, viability, and dispersal, help explain treatment differences. Russian-olive will likely remain an important component of riparian communities along both unregulated and regulated western rivers because it succeeds under conditions optimal for cottonwood establishment and under many conditions unfavorable for cottonwood. Furthermore, many western states still encourage planting of Russian-olive, and control techniques tend to be labor-intensive and expensive.     

The Effect of Incremental Reserve Design and Changing Reservation Goals on the Long-Term Efficiency of Reserve Systems

Abstract:  Selecting reserve areas based on percentages, such as 10% or 12% of a bioregion, is common in conservation planning despite widespread admission that such percentages are arbitrary and likely to be inadequate for the conservation of all biodiversity. Reserve systems based on these relatively low percentage targets are likely to require expansion in the future, resulting in the assembly of reserve systems over many years (incremental reserve design). How then will incremental reserve design, such as increasing percentage targets over time, affect the long-term efficiency of marine reserve systems? We used South Australia as a case study to investigate how changing percentage targets affects the contribution of individual planning units to efficient reserve design. Selection frequency counts provided a measure of a planning unit's conservation value. For the majority of planning units, changing targets led to a change in their conservation value indicating, for example, that planning units identified as high-value sites at a low-percentage conservation target may be of lesser importance when targets are increased. Despite the variability in the value of individual planning units at different targets, there was no loss in efficiency from incremental design of reserve systems based on systematic methods compared with purpose-built reserve systems (i.e., the system is assembled in a single iteration). The exception was when incrementally designed systems were based on South Australia's existing marine reserve system—a system developed in an ad hoc method. The result was reserve systems that were less efficient, less compact, and larger in size. This suggests that systematic approaches have an important role for efficient reserve design when there is uncertainty about the target level of reservation .