Suitability of passive sampling for the monitoring of pharmaceuticals in Finnish surface waters

The occurrence of five pharmaceuticals, consisting of four anti-inflammatory and one antiepileptic drug, was studied by passive sampling and grab sampling in northern Lake Päijänne and River Vantaa. The passive sampling was performed by using Chemcatcher® sampler with a SDB-RPS Empore disk as a receiving phase. In Lake Päijänne, the sampling was conducted during summer 2013 at four locations near the discharge point of a wastewater treatment plant and in the years 2013 and 2015 at four locations along River Vantaa. The samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the multiple reaction monitoring mode. The concentrations of carbamazepine, diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and naproxen in Lake Päijänne determined by passive sampling ranged between 1.4–2.9 ng L^?1, 15–35 ng L^?1, 13–31 ng L^?1, 16–27 ng L^?1, and 3.3–32 ng L^?1, respectively. Similarly, the results in River Vantaa ranged between 1.2–40 ng L^?1, 15–65 ng L^?1, 13–33 ng L^?1, 16–31 ng L^?1, and 3.3–6.4 ng L^?1. The results suggest that the Chemcatcher passive samplers are suitable for detecting pharmaceuticals in lake and river waters.     

Why businessmen should be honest: The argument from rational egoism

You are a business owner who has just taken out a loan to manufacture a new high technology product, for which you have lucrative orders. Although you thought you could make the product to specifications, you have not been able to do so. You will not be able to meet the delivery deadline and cash is running short — so short that it is threatening the viability of the rest of your business. Things are in a critical state, but you desperately want the product to succeed. You have several options. You could tell the customers about your problems, ask for a postponement of the deadline, and hire an outside consultant to help with the product. But this will anger your customers, take time and not solve your cash flow problem. You could also get another bank loan by telling the bank's president that you need it to expand an old line of business. You know he will refuse more money for the new product, but he does not have to be told how you will actually use the money. The loan will take a while to process but you need money now. You can get it from your children's college savings accounts; it would upset your wife (who helped fund the accounts) and the kids, but you do not have to tell them and can repay later. You can also borrow money from the employee pension fund. The employees do not have to know. Finally, you can ship the products even though they do not meet specs, and hope that nobody finds out right away. You can use customers' payment to pay back the various loans and worry about fixing the product later. What should you do? Should you take the honest route or the dishonest route? Clearly, you have to make a moral choice, but you can only do so by reference to a moral code. In this essay we will address three questions: (1) What are the main moral codes that have been accepted throughout the centuries and what are their views on honesty? (2) Why are they inadequate and what would be a rational moral code and its argument for honesty? (3) How would one apply it to the issue of businessmen being honest?     

Variable emissions of microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) from root-associated fungi isolated from Scots pine

Soils emit a large variety of volatile organic compounds. In natural ecosystems, measurements of microbial volatile organic compound (MVOC) exchange rates between soil and atmosphere are difficult due to e.g. the spatial heterogeneity of the belowground organisms, and due to the many potential sources for the same compounds. We measured in laboratory conditions the MVOC emission rates and spectra of eight typical fungi occurring in boreal forest soils. The studied species are decomposers (Gymnopilus penetrans, Ophiostoma abietinum), ectomycorrhizal (Cenococcum geophilum, Piloderma olivaceum, Suillus variegatus, Tomentellopsis submollis) and endophytic fungi (Meliniomyces variabilis, Phialocephala fortinii). The MVOC emissions contained altogether 21 known and 6 unidentified compounds whose emission rates were >0.1 μg g(DW)^?1 h^?1. The most abundant compounds were the short-chain carbonyl compounds (acetone and acetaldehyde). The greatest carbonyl emissions were measured from P. olivaceum (1.9 mg acetone g(DW)^?1 h^?1) and P. fortinii (0.114 mg acetaldehyde g(DW)^?1 h^?1). Terpenoid emissions (isoprene, mono- and sesquiterpenes) were detected from some fungal cultures, but in relatively small amounts. We conclude that soil micro-organisms can potentially be responsible for significant emissions of volatiles, especially short-chain oxygenated compounds, to the below-canopy atmosphere.     

Application of arsenic baselines in the assessment of soil contamination in Finland

In Finland, a new Government Decree on the Assessment of Soil Contamination and Remediation Needs (214/2007) came into force on 1 June 2007. According to the Decree, natural baseline concentration levels should be taken into account when assessing potential soil contamination and the need for remediation. This applies particularly in the case of toxic metallic elements, since baseline concentrations may naturally be rather high. The new decree prescribes soil screening values for 52 substances or groups of substances. The natural baseline concentrations have been taken into account in the definition of the screening values for inorganic pollutants. The Geological Survey of Finland (GTK) carried out a nation-wide geochemical mapping of till on a reconnaissance scale in 1983 and on a regional scale during 1984–1992. These surveys have provided information on natural elemental distribution in subsoils of the glacial till. However, some important trace elements in regional mapping such as arsenic are missing from the analysis, and subsoil samples do not reflect the diffuse anthropogenic input. Thus, GTK has continued the survey work by determining geochemical baselines around suburban areas. Samples have been taken from humus, topsoil and subsoil layers, and the soil parent material has covered sandy soils, glacial tills and fine-grained sediments. According to the studies, a regional difference in the levels of arsenic and some other trace elements can be clearly seen, especially in minerogenic soils. The results illustrate the importance of information on regional baseline concentrations while assessing potential soil contamination.     

Improving rigor in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon source fingerprinting

Source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental samples has advanced greatly in the last 20 years and continues to advance. To realize potential benefits and avoid possible pitfalls, however, great care is needed as one applies published diagnostic tools to data sets. This commentary reflects some recent observations, concerns, and recommendations.     

Dioxin concentrations in sediments of the Baltic Sea--a survey of existing data

Recent survey results for polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs, dioxins) in Baltic Sea sediments from Finland, Sweden and Denmark were merged with previously published Baltic Sea data. Regional distribution of concentration levels, differences in congener patterns, and temporal changes in sediment profiles were examined. One of the main objectives was to study if any major point sources for different PCDD/F congeners could be identified on a regional scale, based on sediment records. The survey confirmed the impact of chlorophenol production derived highly chlorinated PCDF-congeners on the total toxicity in sediments in the Gulf of Finland near the Kymijoki river estuary. Signatures of other point sources or combined point sources pertinent to specific industry branches or particular production processes (such as pulp bleaching, vinyl chloride production, thermal processes) may be discerned. However, the findings did not support any of the known point sources significantly influencing those congeners that are most abundant in Baltic herring and salmon. Instead, regional distributions in the Baltic Sea indicate that atmospheric deposition may act as a major source for those congeners and especially for 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF. There were clear indications of declines in levels in sediment in some areas, but generally the levels of highly chlorinated PCDD/Fs on the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland were still high when compared with other areas of the Baltic Sea. Major areas with data gaps cover the south-eastern and eastern coastal regions of the Baltic Proper and the southern Gulf of Finland.     

Contents and origin of polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDE) in salmon from the Baltic Sea, Lake Saimaa and the Tenojoki river in Finland

The presence of 26 congeners of polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs) was investigated in salmon from three locations in Finland. In addition to salmon, one chlorophenol wood preservative (Ky-5) and one fly ash sample were analyzed for PCDEs. Concentrations of PCDE congeners in salmon muscle measured by high resolution gas chromatography/low resolution mass spectrometry ranged from < 0.02 to 2.4 ng/g fresh weight. The major components of tetra- to octachlorinated PCDEs in salmon were one TeCDE (22′44′-), two PeCDEs (22′44′5- and 23′44′5-) and three HxCDEs (22′44′56′-, 22′44′55′- and 22′344′5-). The Baltic salmon caught from the Simojoki River had higher levels of PCDEs than the Atlantic salmon from the Tenojoki River or salmon from Lake Saimaa in South-Finland. Same PCDE congeners which were abundant in the wood preservative were also detected in salmon, whereas PCDE congeners in the fly ash were different from those in salmon or in Ky-5.     

PCB contamination from polysulphide sealants in residential areas-exposure and risk assessment

From the late 1950s to the early 1970s elastic polysulphide sealants were used in outdoor seams between concrete blocks in prefabricated buildings. The sealants contained 5-30% polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Due to the weathering of sealants in general and the replacement of seams with new PCB-free materials in the 1990s, PCBs have drifted to the soil adjacent to buildings. The objectives of this study were to survey PCB contamination in the surroundings of former PCB-containing buildings and to evaluate the risks to human health. Samples from soil, and also from blood serum of residents, were collected to obtain data for exposure assessment. The health risk assessment was based on deterministic and probabilistic calculations for cancer and non-cancer risks. Soil ingestion and dermal contact were considered the main routes of exposure and children the most important exposed group. The mean total PCB concentration was 6.83 mg/kg within 2m of the buildings and 0.52 mg/kg within 3-10 m from of the buildings. The deterministic risk assessment with conservative parameters resulted in lifetime cancer risk estimates on the order of 10(-6)-10(-7). The lifetime average daily dose (LADD) for PCBs was less than 10% of the reference dose (RfD) 0.02 microg/kg day, which is based on immunosupression in monkeys. The LADD corresponding to the total site attributable exposure was less than 10% of the estimated average dietary PCB intake in Finland. Children can, however, in worst cases be exposed to daily doses near the level of the RfD. Low cost measures are recommended to reduce possible exposure of children.     

Evaluating slurry broadcasting and injection to ley for phosphorus losses and fecal microorganisms in surface runoff

The recent growth in the size of dairy cattle farms and the concentration of farms into smaller areas in Finland may increase local water pollution due to increased manure production and slurry application to grass. Therefore, a field study was conducted to monitor losses of total phosphorus (TP), dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), and fecal microorganisms in surface runoff from a perennial ley. Cattle slurry was added once a year in June 1996-1997 (Study I) and biannually in June and October 1998-2000 (Study II). The slurry was surface broadcast or injected into the clay soil. The field had a slope of 0.9 to 1.7%. Mineral fertilizer was applied on control plots. Biannual slurry broadcasting increased DRP (p < 0.001) and TP losses (p < 0.001) and numbers of fecal microorganisms in surface runoff waters. The highest losses of TP (2.7 kg ha(-1) yr(-1)) and DRP (2.2 kg ha(-1) yr(-1)) and the highest numbers of fecal coliforms (880 colony-forming units [CFU] per 100 mL) and somatic coliphages (2700 plaque-forming units [PFU] per 100 mL) were measured after broadcasting slurry to wet soil followed by rainfall in fall 1998. Injection reduced the TP and DRP losses in surface runoff by 79 and 86%, respectively, compared with broadcasting (17 Oct. 1998-27 Oct. 1999). Corresponding numbers for fecal coliforms were 350 CFU (100 mL)(-1) and for somatic coliphages were 110 PFU (100 mL)(-1) in surface runoff after injection in October 1998. Slurry injection should be favored when spreading slurry amendments to grassland to avoid losses of P and fecal microorganisms in runoff to surface waters.