A Small‐Scale Land‐Sparing Approach to Conserving Biological Diversity in Tropical Agricultural Landscapes

Two contrasting strategies have been proposed for conserving biological diversity while meeting the increasing demand for agricultural products: land sparing and land sharing production systems. Land sparing involves increasing yield to reduce the amount of land needed for agriculture, whereas land‐sharing agricultural practices incorporate elements of native ecosystems into the production system itself. Although the conservation value of these systems has been extensively debated, empirical studies are lacking. We compared bird communities in shade coffee, a widely practiced land‐sharing system in which shade trees are maintained within the coffee plantation, with bird communities in a novel, small‐scale, land‐sparing coffee‐production system (integrated open canopy or IOC coffee) in which farmers obtain higher yields under little or no shade while conserving an area of forest equal to the area under cultivation. Species richness and diversity of forest‐dependent birds were higher in the IOC coffee farms than in the shade coffee farms, and community composition was more similar between IOC coffee and primary forest than between shade coffee and primary forest. Our study represents the first empirical comparison of well‐defined land sparing and land sharing production systems. Because IOC coffee farms can be established by allowing forest to regenerate on degraded land, widespread adoption of this system could lead to substantial increases in forest cover and carbon sequestration without compromising agricultural yield or threatening the livelihoods of traditional small farmers. However, we studied small farms (<5 ha); thus, our results may not generalize to large‐scale land‐sharing systems. Furthermore, rather than concluding that land sparing is generally superior to land sharing, we suggest that the optimal approach depends on the crop, local climate, and existing land‐use patterns. Un Método para Reservar Tierras a Pequeña Escala para Conservar la Biodiversidad en Paisajes Agrícolas Tropicales     

ENERGY SOURCES IN CHINA - PRESENT AND FUTURE

In 1979 China produced 640 million tons coal equivalent (TCE) of energy. Although this was sufficient to meet its demand of 586 million TCE in 1979, the Chinese Government is anticipating a difficult struggle for energy self-sufficiency in the next few years as demand increases rapidly owing to modernization efforts in the Chinese economy. The exploitation of coal will have highest priority in the Chinese energy development plan, followed by hydroelectricity. Petroleum and natural gas will be used mainly as raw materials for the chemical industry and as fuel for internal combustion engines. The institution of conservation measures coupled with necessary adjustments in the economic and industrial structures will also be given special attention in the energy plan. New and renewable resources of energy such as biomass, solar, wind, tidal wave and geothermal energies have played important roles in the various regions of the country where conditions are favourable and will continue to be developed. Nuclear energy will also be developed in industrially developed areas with acute shortages of power. Overall, it is projected that in the next twenty years the production of conventional energy must be doubled in order to satisfy the increasing demand. Capital resources remain the principal obstacle in such efforts. China will need external financial assistance, in the form of joint ventures, compensation trade or long-term loans to develop the abundant but relatively unexploited energy resources. En 1979, la quantité d'énergie produite en Chine représentait 640 millions de tonnes-équivalent charbon (tec). Bien cette quantité fut suffisante pour répondre à une demande de 586 millions de tec en 1979, le Gouvernement de la Chine anticipe une lutte soutenue pour arriver à une auto-suffisance en matière d énergie dans les quelques prochaines années alors que la demande augmente rapidement dû aux efforts de modernisation de l'économie chinoise. Dans le plan énergétique de la Chine, l'expoitation du charbon gardera une place de premier plan suivi de l'hydro-électricité. Le pétrole et le gaz naturel seront employés principalement comme matières premières dans l'industrie chimique et comme carburant pour les engins à combustion interne. Une attention particulière sera accordée dans le plan énergétique à l'institution de mesures de conservation, alliées aux ajustements nécessaires dans les structures économiques et industrielles. Les sources d'énergie nouvelles et renouvelables, telles que la biomasse, les énergies solaire, éolienne, marémotrice et géothermique ont joué des rôles importants dans de nombreuses régions du pays où les conditions sont favorables et continueront à être mises en valeur. L'utilisation de l'énergie nuclèaire sera aussi intensifiée dans les régions industriellement développées dans lesquelles se fait sentir de manière aiguë la penurie d'énergie électrique. Dans l'ensemble, on prévoit que dans les vingt prochaines années, la production conventionnelle d'énergie doit être doublée pour répondre à une demande droissante. Les capitaux demeurent un obstacle sérieux à ces efforts. La Chine aura besoin d'assistance financière extérieure sous forme d'associations en participation, d'échanges compensatoires, de prèts à long terme afin de mettre en valeur ses ressources énergétiques abondantes mais relativement inexploitées. En 1979 China produjo 640 millones de tonelades equivalentes de carbón que fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de energia de aquel año. Sin embargo el gobierno anticipa dificultades en mantener la autosuficiencia en energia en los próximos años debido al rápido aumento de la demanda causada por la modernización de la economía. Dentro del plan de desarrollo energético, la explotación del carbón tendrá la máxima prioridad seguido por la hidroelectricidad. El petróleo y el gas natural serán usados principalmente como insumo en la industria química y como combustible en los motores de combustión interna. Las medidas de conservación de energia y ajustes en la estructura de la industria y la economia en general recibirán especial atención. Los recursos nuevos y renovables han jugado un rol importante en varias regiones del país y conti nuarán siendos desarrollados. Le energia nuclear también se desarrollará en las áreas industriales que sufren carestia en electricidad. En general, se proyecta que en los próximos 20 años se doblará la producción de energia convencional para satisfacer la demanda creciente La falta de capital será la restricción principal para tal esfuerzo. China necesitará en consecuencia asistencia financiera externa en la forma de inversiones compartidas y préstamos a largo plazo para desarrollar los abundantes pero relativamente inexplotados recursos energéticos.     

THE MARKET FOR MANGANESE DERIVED FROM DEEPSEA NODULES

The potential markets for the manganese which may be derived from deep-sea nodules are assessed. Estimates are made of current consumption patterns of manganese in various forms – standard ferromanganese, low carbon ferromanganese and manganese metal – by the ferrous and nonferrous metallurgical industries. The effects of technological developments, expected to occur between 1980 and 1990, and potential price reductions on the demand for manganese are analysed separately and the combined effects of market growth, technological change, and price reductions are synthesized. Cet article évalue des marches potentiels pour le manganèse qui peut être extrait des nodules du fond des océans. Ces estimations sont basées sur les tendances actuelles de la consommation du manganèse dans ses diverses formes – ferromanganèse normal, ferromanganèse à basse teneur en carbone et manganèse métallique – par les industries des métaux ferreux et non ferreux. Les effects des progrès techniques qui sont attendus entre 1980 et 1990 et la diminution possible des prix du manganèse sont analysés séparément. L'article fait aussi la synthèse des effects combinés de la croissance du marché, des changements technologiques et de la diminution des prix. En este artículo se evalúa el mercado potencial para el manganeso derivado de los nódulos obtenidos del fondo marino. Se analiza las tendencies actuales del consumo de manganeso en sus diversas formas – ferromanganeso estandard, ferromanganeso de bajo contenido de carbón y metal manganeso – por las industries metalúrgicas. Los efectos sobre la demanda de manganeso por el desarrollo tecnológico durante 1980 a 1990 y de la reducción potencial del precio, son analizados separadamente. Se evalúa también el efector combinado del crecimiento del mercado, el cambio tecnológico y las reducciones de precio.     

Comparing Spatially Explicit Ecological and Social Values for Natural Areas to Identify Effective Conservation Strategies

Abstract: Consideration of the social values people assign to relatively undisturbed native ecosystems is critical for the success of science‐based conservation plans. We used an interview process to identify and map social values assigned to 31 ecosystem services provided by natural areas in an agricultural landscape in southern Australia. We then modeled the spatial distribution of 12 components of ecological value commonly used in setting spatial conservation priorities. We used the analytical hierarchy process to weight these components and used multiattribute utility theory to combine them into a single spatial layer of ecological value. Social values assigned to natural areas were negatively correlated with ecological values overall, but were positively correlated with some components of ecological value. In terms of the spatial distribution of values, people valued protected areas, whereas those natural areas underrepresented in the reserve system were of higher ecological value. The habitats of threatened animal species were assigned both high ecological value and high social value. Only small areas were assigned both high ecological value and high social value in the study area, whereas large areas of high ecological value were of low social value, and vice versa. We used the assigned ecological and social values to identify different conservation strategies (e.g., information sharing, community engagement, incentive payments) that may be effective for specific areas. We suggest that consideration of both ecological and social values in selection of conservation strategies can enhance the success of science‐based conservation planning.     

Risk Factors for Death in the 27 March 1994 Georgia and Alabama Tornadoes

Field surveys were made one week after tornadoes killed 40 persons and injured over 300 in rural regions of Alabama and Georgia, USA, on 27 March 1994. Surveys were completed for samples of 20 persons who were killed and 31 persons who were in the paths of the tornadoes but survived to determine whether there were differences in personal characteristics, behavior or location between the two groups. Persons who died were significantly older than persons who survived, more likely to be in mobile homes or in rooms above ground with windows, less likely to be watching television before the tornado, and were aware of the approaching tornado for less time than survivors. There was no difference in gender, race, marital status, education, disability or previous experience with tornadoes between those who died and survivors.     

MOVEMENT AND WAYFINDING IN THE KING SAUD UNIVERSITY BUILT ENVIRONMENT: A LOOK AT FRESHMAN ORIENTATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION

One potentially significant, yet hardly investigated, criterion for postoccupancy evaluation is the legibility of a setting—the degree to which a building or group of buildings facilitate the ability of users to find their way around. Legibility is one of the foundation concepts of environmental psychology, yet it has not often been considered enough as a guiding principle in design. The purpose of this paper is to analyse spatial orientation and wayfinding problems encountered by newcomers (freshman students) at the King Saud University (KSU) campus, Saudi Arabia, and to test/relate this to Lynch's elements of the image of cities. The analysis draws on previous research findings, theories, and more general observations, as well as observations made of wayfinding performance and map sketching by 30 high-school students likely to soon enroll at the university. Many specific problems with orientation and the architectural legibility of the buildings are identified and discussed. Emphasis is placed upon physical-setting variables that are likely to affect the ease with which spatial orientation and wayfinding are accomplished. These include the following facets of the KSU built environment: degree of differentiation; degree of visual access; and complexity of spatial layout.Legible buildings within which people can effectively maintain their orientation and find their way, according to this research, are in no way simplistic, dull, or boring; on the contrary, settings must possess distinctive landmarks and regions which, along with understandable path networks, allow users to know where they are and how to make their way to desired destinations. Coherent and legible environments are important in the lives of the people who use them. The movement of people through buildings and the factors that influence whether or not they are able to find their way need to continue to be of significance to both researchers and practitioners.     

Response of the Head,Neck and Torso to Pendulum Impacts on the Back

Pendulum impacts on the back were conducted to determine human head, neck and torso biomechanics. Eight unembalmed cadavers were subjected to 23.4 kg pendulum impacts at 4.4 m/s and 6.6 m/s at T1 and T6. Twenty-four tests were conducted with accelerometers on the pendulum, spine, torso, and head in the WSU 3-2-2-2 array. High-speed photography was taken. Impact displaces the torso forward, deflects the chest, displaces and rotates the head, and extends the neck. Average responses and corridors were determined for head kinematics and chest force-deflection. The head-neck response occurs in two phases. First, the head displaces upwards and rearwards 30—40 mm with respect to the torso along a 45° trajectory. Head rotation is 1O°-15° with essentially no neck moment, but high neck compression forces. Second, the head rotates from 10°-15° to 40°-55° starting with a rapid rise in neck moment and displaces 80–100 mm rearward. Anterior cervical fractures correlate with neck tension. Rib fractures correlate with impact force and chest deflection. This study provides chest bio-mechanical responses for rear impacts resulting in head displacement and rotation, neck extension and cervical-thoracic injury.