Strengthening incentives for efficient road safety policy priorities: The roles of cost–benefit analysis and road pricing

This paper discusses how incentives for setting efficient priorities in road safety policy can be strengthened. Efficient priorities are characterised by the use of cost-effective road safety measures. Cost-effective road safety measures can be identified by means of cost-benefit analyses. Studies of the actual priorities in road safety policy, in particular in the Scandinavian countries, suggest that these priorities are inefficient, i.e. characterised by the non-use or sub-optimal use of cost-effective road safety measures as well as an extensive use of ineffective road safety measures. This occurs despite the fact that road safety policy analyses have included extensive cost-benefit analyses of road safety measures. It would thus appear that cost-benefit analyses do not necessarily generate a sufficient incentive to implement cost-effective road safety measures. Possible reasons for this are discussed in the paper. It is argued that a large part of the monetary benefits of road safety measures, as estimated in cost-benefit analyses, are not subject to market transactions, and do therefore not manifest themselves in the form of increased income or higher profits. While cost-benefit analyses are indispensable as a means of identifying cost-effective road safety measures, their influence on actual road safety policy needs to be strengthened by providing additional incentives for the use of cost-effective road safety measures. It is suggested that a system of road pricing could generate such incentives. A brief sketch of a hypothetical system of road pricing is given and some problems associated with the implementation of this system are discussed.     

Species distribution modelling—Effect of design and sample size of pseudo-absence observations

We explored the effect of varying pseudo-absence data in species distribution modelling using empirical data for four real species and simulated data for two imaginary species. In all analyses we used a fixed study area, a fixed set of environmental predictors and a fixed set of presence observations. Next, we added pseudo-absence data generated by different sampling designs and in different numbers to assess their relative importance for the output from the species distribution model. The sampling design strongly influenced the predictive performance of the models while the number of pseudo-absences had minimal effect on the predictive performance. We attribute much of these results to the relationship between the environmental range of the pseudo-absences (i.e. the extent of the environmental space being considered) and the environmental range of the presence observations (i.e. under which environmental conditions the species occurs). The number of generated pseudo-absences had a direct effect on the predicted probability, which translated to different distribution areas. Pseudo-absence observations that fell within grid cells with presence observations were purposely included in our analyses. We discourage the practice of excluding certain pseudo-absence data because it involves arbitrary assumptions about what are (un)suitable environments for the species being modelled.     

Age and seasonal variability of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in free-ranging East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus)

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were analysed in adipose tissue from 92 East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus) sampled during 1999-2001. Mean SigmaPBDE concentrations were 70 ng/g lipid weight (lw) (range: 22-192 ng/g lw) and showed no relationship with age or sex. Of the 32 analysed PBDE congeners; BDE47, BDE153, BDE99 and BDE100 dominated, and comprised 99.6% of the SigmaPBDE concentration. The SigmaPBDE concentration had a highly significant correlation with SigmaPCB, SigmaCHL, dieldrin, HCB and SigmaHCH concentrations. We found a seasonal pattern of median SigmaPBDE concentration with 1.2 to 1.8 times higher concentrations in March to July than the rest of the year. The seasonal variation also provides a clue to the seasonal exposure, bio-availability, toxic exposure and degradation. We suggest that future geographical PBDE data comparisons may not need corrections for sex or age, but such data sets should be corrected for seasonal variability, using the presented correctional trigonometric regression.     

Edge Effects on the Understory Bird Community in a Logged Forest in Uganda

Abstract: Understanding how the fauna of logged tropical rainforests responds to fragmentation and the creation of edges is vital to ensure conservation of biodiversity. We studied the composition of the understory bird community from the edge of a 15-ha clearing toward the interior of the forest in a part of Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda, that was selectively logged about 45 years ago. Mist netting was conducted along five transects from the edge and 500 m into the interior. The total number of individuals captured did not change with distance from the edge, but there was a significant increase in the number of species. We sampled fewer, but more common species near the edge, whereas the interior of the forest had more, and less common species. Guild composition also changed with distance from the edge. Frugivore-insectivores and nectarivores were most common close to the edge. Among insectivores, ground foragers, bark-gleaners, and leaf-gleaners were most common in the interior of the forest, whereas sallying insectivores favored the edge. Graminivores were unaffected by the edge. Analysis of common species showed that Ispidina picta , Andropadus curvirostris , A. latirostris , Camaroptera brachyura , Terpsiphone rufiventer , and Nectarinia olivacea were associated with the edge, but no species showed significant avoidance of the edge. This finding may be explained by the generally low sample sizes of interior species. Our results show that even bird communities in logged forests respond to edges. Estimates of edge effects suggested that changes in bird densities may have occurred several hundred meters from the edge. In conclusion, logged forests provide habitat for bird species avoiding forest edges, and this should be considered in the management of such forests for conservation.     

Trends of perfluorochemicals in Greenland ringed seals and polar bears: Indications of shifts to decreasing trends

Time-series of perfluorinated alkylated substances (PFASs) in East Greenland polar bears and East and West Greenland ringed seals were updated in order to deduce whether a response to the major reduction in perfluoroalkyl production in the early 2000s had occurred. Previous studies had documented an exponential increase of perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) in liver tissue from both species. In the present study, PFOS was still the far most dominant compound constituting 92% (West Greenland ringed seals), 88% (East Greenland ringed seals) and 85% (East Greenland polar bears). The PFOS concentrations increased up to 2006 with doubling times of approximately 6 years for the ringed seal populations and 14 years in case of polar bears. Since then a rapid decrease has occurred with clearing half-lives of approximately 1, 2 and 4 years, respectively. In polar bears perfluorohexane sulphonate (PFHxS) and perfluorooctane sulphonamide (PFOSA) also showed decreasing trends in recent years as do perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnA). For the West Greenland ringed seal population perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), PFDA and PFUnA peaked in the mid 2000s, whereas PFNA, PFDA and PFUnA in the East Greenland population have been stable or increasing in recent years. The peak of PFASs in Greenland ringed seals and polar bears occurred at a later time than in Canadian seals and polar bears and considerably later than observed in seal species from more southern latitudes. We suggest that this could be explained by the distance to emission hot-spots and differences in long-range transport to the Arctic.     

Comparison of two methods for the determination of total organic halogen (TOX) in receiving waters

Two methods for the determination of total organic halogen (TOX), orginating from bleaching of pulp, in receiving waters have been compared. One of the methods (AC/MC) is based on adsorption of the halogenated matter onto an activated carbon sorbent. The halogen is determined by a microcoulometric technique after combustion of the carbon. The other method (XAD/PT) uses an XAD resin as sorbent and the determination of the halogen is carried out by potentiometric titration after a schöniger combustion of the resin eluate.Both methods showed good performance for samples consisting of spent bleach liquors diluted with distilled, fresh and brackish water. The repeatability was very good with a relative standard deviation less than a few per cent. The detection limit of the AC/MC method is about 0.1 μmol/1 and for the XAD/PT method about ten times higher. The AC/MC method gave in most cases 10–20% higher TOX concentrations compared to the XAD/PT method.     

Potential correlation between perfluorinated acids and liver morphology in East Greenland polar bears (Ursus maritimus)

In this study, residual concentrations of chlorpyrifos (CPF) were determined in feed (40) and fodder (25) samples collected from various locations of Tarai region of Uttarakhand. For extracting residues, liquid–liquid partition followed by alumina column clean up was used and the detection and quantification of residues was undertaken with the help of high-performance liquid chromatography using C18 column and diode array detector at 220?nm. Of the total 40 feed samples analyzed, 7 (17.5%) samples were found positive for CPF with the mean residual concentration of 0.058?µg?g^?1; while out of 25 fodder samples, CPF residues were detected in a single (4%) sample with residual concentration of 0.39?µg?g^?1. However, none of the feed or fodder samples contained CPF residues above the prescribed limit.     

Testosterone concentrations and male genital organ morphology in Greenland sledge dogs (Canis familiaris) dietary exposed to organohalogen contaminants

This study investigated whether low-level, long-term in utero and post-natal exposure to organohalogen pollutants disrupts male reproductive organ morphology and testosterone production in Greenland sledge dogs (Canis familiaris), as a model of Arctic top predators feeding on marine mammals. Six male dogs were followed for 1 year and testosterone concentrations, testes/baculum morphology and baculum bone mineral density (BMD) was determined. Three males were exposed to organohalogenated contaminants (OHCs) in utero through maternal dietary intake of minke whale blubber (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), with a post-weaning ∑OHC intake of 10.4–11.7 µg kg^?1 day^?1 resulting in an adipose tissue range of ∑OHC 4518–5729 ng (g lw)^?1 after 1 year. Three control males were exposed to very low concentrations of OHCs through pork fat. No significant differences were seen in plasma testosterone concentrations, baculum weight, BMD, and testicular length in the six male dogs (control, n = 3 and exposed, n = 3) measured at 3, 5, 7, 9, and 12 months of age. Testicular weights were significantly lower in the exposed group (p = 0.015, n = 2). Although this study had a limited number of animals, it was observed that in utero and the following 12 months of chronic exposure to a complex mixture of contaminants in the form of naturally accumulated OHCs does not affects testosterone levels, but possibly affects testicular weights in sledge dogs.     

Liver and renal lesions in mercury-contaminated narwhals (Monodon monoceros) from North West Greenland

Narwhals (Monodon monoceros) from North West Greenland are known to bioaccumulate mercury (Hg) in tissues and internal organs. This is postulated to be a health concern and therefore studies were undertaken to conduct a screening study of Hg concentrations and histopathology of liver and renal tissues in a total of 12 specimens. The sample consisted of two sub-adults (one male, one female) and 10 adult (six males, four females) collected in Qaanaaq (Thule) 2010. In liver, Hg mean ± SD was 11.88 ± 10.47 μg/g ww (range: 0.39?31.8 μg/g ww) while the concentrations in kidneys were 1.85 ± 1.20 μg/g ww (range: 0.41?4.03 μg/g ww). There was no marked difference in Hg concentrations between males and females while sub-adults had significantly lower concentrations. The histological examinations of renal tissue showed glomerular capillary dilatation and basement membrane thickening, dilatation, and hyalinization of Bowman's space/capsule and tubular lesions with hyaline casts accompanied by interstitial fibrosis in the kidneys. In liver tissue, portal cell infiltrates and fibrosis, bile duct proliferation, lipid-filled Ito cells, and steatosis were found. There was no marked difference in histological prevalence between males and females and in Hg concentrations in individuals with or without lesions. Four of seven renal lesions and one liver lesion were found in the two sub-adult whales. Based upon these findings, as well as the nature of the lesions, evidence suggests that histopathological alterations were a result of age but that Hg might be an aggravating co-factor in development of renal lesions in particular.     

Heavy metal contents in whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) along a pollution gradient in a subarctic watercourse

Metallurgic industry is a source of serious environmental pollution related to the emission of heavy metals. Freshwater systems are focal points for pollution, acting as sinks for contaminants that may end up in fish and humans. The Pasvik watercourse in the border area between Finland, Norway and Russia is located in the vicinity of the Pechenganickel metallurgic enterprises, and the lower part of the watershed drains the Nikel smelters directly through Lake Kuetsjarvi. Heavy metal (Ni, Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb and Hg) concentrations in environment (water and sediments) and whitefish Coregonus lavaretus tissue (gills, liver, kidney and muscle) were contrasted between five lake localities situated along a spatial gradient of increasing distance (5-100 km) to the smelters. The heavy metal concentrations, in particular Ni, Cu and Cd, were highly elevated in Kuetsjarvi, but steeply declined with increasing distance to the smelters and were moderate or low in the other four localities. The study demonstrates that the majority of metal emissions and runoffs are deposited near the pollution source, and only moderate amounts of the heavy metal contaminants seem to be transported at further distances. Bioaccumulation of Hg occurred in all investigated tissues, and higher Hg concentrations in planktivorous versus benthivorous whitefish furthermore indicated that pelagic foraging is associated with higher levels of Hg biomagnification. Potential population ecology impacts of high heavy metal contaminations where mainly observed in whitefish in Kuetsjarvi, which showed depletions in growth rate, condition factor and size and age at maturation.