Improving the environmental performance of the fishing fleet by use of Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

This article introduces Quality Function Deployment (QFD) as a method for improving the environmental performance of the Norwegian fishing fleet. Systems engineering has been introduced as a feasible process for handling sustainability issues in the fisheries, because it contains methods for general system design, operation, and support in a life-cycle perspective. QFD is related to systems engineering as a method for translating stakeholder needs into detailed system requirements at each life-cycle stage. Eco-QFD extends the scope of QFD, and combines QFD, Life-Cycle Cost (LCC), and Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) to evaluate environmental effects and costs in the system development process. The article assesses the usefulness of Eco-QFD in fisheries management decision-making regarding sustainability in the fishing fleet, and for shipyards in their design of fishing vessels. It is concluded that Eco-QFD may be difficult to use for fisheries management in its present form, due to the complexity of sustainability, and the time and efforts demanded to carry out the analyses. Nevertheless, the structuring of the stakeholder needs and requirements may contribute to improved understanding of the decision-situation.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and HBCD in bird eggs of South Africa

In this paper, the first data on brominated flame retardants (BFRs), in particular polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) in eggs of bird species from South Africa are described (N=43). Concentrations of PBDEs were detected in all the studied species and in all the geographic areas. Highest concentrations of PBDEs were measured in bird eggs from the Vaal River, which is situated downstream of the most industrialized area in South Africa. Sum-PBDE concentrations were highest in eggs of one African sacred ibis (396 ng g(-1) lipid weight (lw)), possibly due to foraging on dumping sites. Lowest mean level of sum-PBDEs (2.3 ng g(-1) lw) was measured in cattle egrets (N=11) from Barberspan Sanctuary, a Ramsar site. The PBDE congener pattern showed large differences, reflecting different trophic levels, migratory behavior, distance to the source, and, exposure to different PBDE mixtures, among others. HBCD was detected only in four species, and highest levels were measured in one egg of African sacred ibis (71 ng g(-1) lw). In most species, levels of PBDEs were one to several orders of magnitude lower than levels of DDTs and PCBs. PBDEs correlated strongly with DDTs, PCBs and some other organochlorines (OCs), indicating the same source. The widespread occurrence of PBDEs in the South African avian species showed a strong need for further investigations of PBDEs in the Southern African environment.     

Bioaccumulation of PCBs in Arctic seabirds: influence of dietary exposure and congener biotransformation

Four seabird species and their prey (zooplankton or fish) were collected in the Barents Sea to determine how dietary exposure, cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme activities and sex influenced their hepatic PCB concentrations and accumulation patterns. Five males and five females from each seabird species (little auk (Alle alle), Brunnich's guillemot (Uria lomvia), black guillemot (Cepphus grylle) and black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)) were analysed. PCB concentrations could not be explained directly by carbon source (delta13C) or trophic position (delta15N), but by a combination of dietary parameters (delta13C, delta15N, migratory pattern, age) and contaminant metabolism. Contrary to previous studies, the PCB pattern differed among seabirds, with a higher proportion of persistent congeners (% of PCB-153, RPCB-153) in black-legged kittiwake than in auks. The PCB pattern also differed among auks, with little auk as the most efficient biotransformer (highest RPCB-153 values of persistent congeners). Based on high RPCB-153 values, Brunnich's guillemot poorly metabolised ortho-meta-unsubstituted congeners, whereas black guillemot poorly metabolised meta-para unsubstituted congeners. Species-specific differences in PCB biotransformation were confirmed by metabolic indices, where PCB patterns in seabirds were adjusted for PCB pattern in prey. The relative contribution of ortho-meta-unsubstituted congeners to SigmaPCBs decreased with increasing EROD activity. There were no differences in PCB concentrations, PCB patterns or cytochrome P450 enzyme activities between males and females. CYP P450 activities (CYP1A- and CYP2B/3A-like: EROD and testosterone 6beta-hydroxylation, respectively) were low and did not correlate with concentrations of non- or mono-ortho Cl-substituted PCBs (NO- and MO-PCBs), or with total toxic equivalent concentrations (TEQs) for dioxin-like effects of NO- and MO-PCBs.     

Comparison of organochlorine concentrations and patterns between free-ranging zooplankton and zooplankton sampled from seabirds' stomachs

To investigate the use of predators' stomach contents to measure the organochlorine load in free-ranging prey, the two zooplankton species Thysanoessa inermis (euphausiids) and Themisto libellula (amphipods) were collected simultaneously from the water column and from the seabird Brünnich's guillemot (Uria lomvia)'s stomach (from crop to proventriculus). The organochlorine compounds' concentrations and relative proportion of PCB-153 generally did not differ between the two sampling methods (least square mean of Sigma organochlorines=5.9 and 6.8 ng g(-1) wet weight for water column and stomach-sampled prey, respectively), indicating that the organochlorines in stomach-sampled prey were not yet affected by mechanical, chemical and bacterial degradation. Although the sample size is restricted, similar organochlorine concentrations and pattern in free-ranging and stomach-sampled prey may suggest that Brünnich's guillemots feed randomly on the zooplankton population rather than at more (or less) contaminated individuals. Alternatively or in addition, the similar concentrations and pattern suggest that the contaminant levels in Barents Sea zooplankton do not influence their behaviour to change the vulnerability to predation. In conclusion, the organochlorine concentrations and pattern in zooplankton collected from seabirds' stomach correspond with levels in free-ranging prey.     

Building Safety indicators: Part 2 – Application,practices and results

Petroleum exploration and production in the Barents Sea is a controversial topic. The Goliat field outside the northern coast of Norway will be the first offshore oil development in this region, with planned production start in 2013–2014. Avoiding major accidents at Goliat is critical; not only to reduce the risks to human lives and the environment, but also to gain political acceptance. Providing early warnings of major accidents for Goliat is one of the main objectives of the research project ‘Building Safety’. The objective of this paper is to describe the development of early warnings in the form of indicators. In addition, the paper includes an overview of current status of early warnings of accidents in other major hazard industries; the nuclear power industry, the chemical process industry, and aviation. Experiences from these industries, including lessons learned from recent major accidents, have been used as important input to the development of early warning indicators.     

Biomagnification of organochlorines along a Barents Sea food chain

To trace the biomagnification of organochlorines in marine food chains near Svalbard, which may lead to the high organochlorine concentrations in top predators from the area, we compared concentrations and patterns of organochlorines in selected taxa. The pelagic crustaceans, Calanus spp. (copepods), Thysanoessa spp. (euphausiids), Parathemisto libellula (amphipod), and the fish species, Boreogadus saida (polar cod) and Gadus morhua (cod) were selected to represent the lower trophic levels in the food web. Four seabird species were chosen at the higher trophic levels, Uria lomvia (Brünnich's guillemot), Cepphus grylle (black guillemot), Rissa tridactyla (black-legged kittiwake) and Larus hyperboreus (glaucous gull). We found low concentrations of the organochlorines sigma hexachlorocyclohexanes (sigma HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), sigma Chlordanes, sigma DDTs and sigma polychlorinated biphenyls (sigma PCBs) in crustaceans (11-50 ng g-1 lipid wt.) and fish (15-222 ng g-1 lipid wt.). In seabirds, the organochlorine concentrations biomagnified one to three orders of magnitude dependent on species and compound class. Glaucous gulls had the highest concentrations of all organochlorines. The organochlorine levels in all taxa except glaucous gull were comparable to those recorded in similar species in the Canadian Arctic. The organochlorine pattern changed from crustaceans and fish to seabirds. Moving up the food chain, the relative contribution of sigma HCHs, HCB and sigma Chlordanes decreased, and the relative contribution of sigma DDTs, sigma PCBs, persistent compounds and metabolites increased. The results reflected trophic transfer of organochlorines along the food chain as well as different elimination potentials due to direct diffusion in crustaceans and fish, and higher contaminant metabolic activity in seabirds.     

Tissue distribution and effects on hepatic xenobiotic metabolising enzymes of 2,3,3',4,4'-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB-105) in COD (Gadus morhua) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

2,3,3',4,4'-Pentachlorobiphenyl, PCB-105 (IUPAC no. 105) was orally administered twice with a 4-day interval between dosings (total dose 10 mg kg(-1) body weight) to gonadally immature cod and rainbow trout of both sexes. The fish were killed 9 and 17 days after the first treatment, and the effects of PCB-105 on hepatic xenobiotic metabolising enzymes were determined by examining the cytochrome-P450-dependent ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) and aldrin epoxidase activities, and the EROD-catalysing P450 1A1 protein by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Glutathione S-transferase activity towards 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene was included. The hepatic levels of the compound were determined. In addition, the distribution patterns of radio-labelled PCB-105 were studied by whole-body autoradiography. In exposed rainbow trout EROD activity and P450 1A1 by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were significant induced, while GST activity was significant reduced. Exposed cod did not show significantly different enzyme values from controls, but percentage fat in the liver was significantly reduced. The whole cod liver contained about 1000 times more PCB-105 than the corresponding trout liver, and on a fat-weight basis the PCB level was five to six times higher in cod liver than in the rainbow trout liver. The autoradiographical investigation revealed high concentrations of radiolabelled compound in the liver and the brain of cod, while in rainbow trout the radiolabel was mainly confined to extrahepatic fat depots. These results demonstrate that the mono-ortho chlorinated coplanar analogue, PCB-105, has a different distribution pattern in the two fish species and that the potential for induction of the hepatic xenobiotic metabolising enzyme system seems to be lower in the cod than in the rainbow trout.     

Levels of PCB 126 and PCB 153 in plasma and tissues in goats exposed during gestation and lactation

The aim of the present study was to gain knowledge about the disposition of the PCB congeners 126 and 153 in a goat model where pregnant does were given oral doses of PCB from day 60 of gestation until delivery. The goat kids were thus exposed to PCB during gestation and lactation. The doses of PCB 153 and PCB 126 were 98 and 49 ng/kg body wt/day, respectively. PCB levels were measured in plasma from the does at day 90 of gestation and at delivery, and in plasma from the kids at birth and four weeks post partum. Concentrations of PCB were analysed in brain, liver and fat tissue from the does six weeks after delivery and in liver and fat tissue from the kids at nine months of age. The ratio of estimated body burden to ingested dose in the does, was 0.95 +/- 0.07 for PCB 153 and 0.41 +/- 0.03 for PCB 126. Approximately 9% of PCB 153 and 6% of PCB 126 was transferred from the mothers to their kids during gestation and lactation. Prenatal exposure contributed to a much lower fraction of the body burden than postnatal PCB intake via milk, due to the fact that almost 100% of the PCB 153 transferred from the does to kids was transferred via milk, and the PCB 126 intake via milk was threefold higher than the calculated body burden. The hepatic PCB 126 concentration in both does and kids was significantly higher than the concentration in fat, in contrast to PCB 153, where the highest concentrations were found in fat. A significant difference in body burden between the does at delivery, the newborn kids, and the kids at four weeks of age, did not influence the plasma concentration of PCB 153 on a fat weight basis, which showed no difference with sampling time. Our results suggest that PCB 126 and PCB 153 have different pharmacokinetic properties. The higher levels of PCB 126 in liver tissue compared to fat tissue confirm the concept of hepatic sequestration. The similar blood concentration of PCB 153 in the does at delivery and their newborn kids despite the considerable difference in body burden, suggests a high degree of placental transfer. This supports previous observations that low molecular weight, lipid-soluble, non-polar chemicals reach the fetus to the greatest possible extent. For PCB 153, the body burden may provide the appropriate dose metric at steady state, but may give a minor underestimation of PCB 126 at low environmental exposure levels due to hepatic sequestration.     

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls, organochlorine pesticides, mercury, cadmium, copper, selenium, arsenic, and zinc in the harbour seal, Phoca vitulina, in Norwegian waters

Residue levels of the chlorinated hydrocarbons polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), total DDT, alpha-, beta- and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and oxychlordane in blubber, and the elements mercury, cadmium, copper, selenium, arsenic, and zinc in liver, of 82 harbour seals, Phoca vitulina, were determined. The seals were found dead or dying in Norwegian waters during the disease outbreak caused by a morbilli virus in 1988. Of the chlorinated hydrocarbons, the highest concentrations were found of PCBs, which were 2-4 times higher than the total DDT concentrations. P,p'-DDE was the main contributor to the total DDT, and constituted about 80%. The PCB and total DDT concentrations ranged from 0.4-38 and 0.1-8.8 mg kg(-1), respectively. The mercury concentrations ranged from 0.1-89 mg kg(-1). Significantly higher mean levels of PCBs (13 mg kg(-1) and mercury (16 mg kg(-1)) were found in blubber and liver, respectively, of seals from the Southern coast of Norway, as compared to the corresponding mean levels in seals from the Oslofjord (8.8 and 4.1 mg kg(-1)), and at the Northwestern coast (5.8 and 7.9 mg kg(-1)), respectively. A significant positive correlation was found between the concentrations of selenium and mercury. When the seals were grouped according to sex and age, females of ageclass > 1 and pups of both sexes had significantly lower PCB and total DDT levels than males ageclass > 1. Significantly higher hepatic mercury levels were found in seals ageclass > 1 as compared to pups. Only low levels of the other organochlorines, cadmium and arsenic, were found. Copper and zinc were considered to be present at normal physiological levels. The present organochlorine and heavy metal concentrations gave no support to suggestions that organochlorines and heavy metal pollution may be directly involved in the observed seal deaths.     

Reproduction and survival of tawny owls in relation to persistent organic pollutants

The potential effects of organochlorines (OCs) and brominated flame retardants on reproduction and survival were studied in tawny owls (Strix aluco) in Central Norway over a period of 19 years (1986-2004). Concentrations of 14 OCs and five polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in eggs (n=104), and Principal Component Analysis was used to produce composite measurements of pollutants; i.e. PC1 and PC2, which accounted for 85% of the variation in contaminant concentrations. There was no evidence for adverse associations between pollutants (PC scores) and life-history traits such as clutch size, probability of producing fledglings and survival, when controlling for potentially confounding variables. Moreover, there was no evidence for interactions between pollutants and vole abundance suggesting no synergistic effects of food stress and pollutants on these life-history traits. There was, however, some evidence for a non-linear negative association between p,p'-DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethylene) and eggshell thickness. This suggests that the concentrations of pollutants in this ecosystem were too low to affect reproduction and survival in an owl predominantly consuming prey at low trophic levels, but may be sufficient to cause eggshell thinning at the highest concentrations.