Decomposition of non-ionic surfactant Tergitol TMN-10 by the Fenton process in the presence of iron oxide nanoparticles

The aim of our studies was to determine the efficiency of decomposition of non-ionic surfactant by the Fenton method in the presence of iron nanocompounds and to compare it with the classical Fenton method. The subject of studies was water solutions of non-ionic detergent Tergitol TMN-10 used in textile industry. Water solutions of the surfactant were subjected to treatment by the classical Fenton method and to treatment in the presence of iron nanocompounds. In the samples of liquid solutions containing the surfactant, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) were determined. The Fenton process was optimized based on studies of the effect of compounds used in the treatment, doses of iron and nanoiron, hydrogen peroxide and pH of the solution on surfactant decomposition. Iron oxide nanopowder catalyzed the process of detergent decomposition, increasing its efficiency and the degree of mineralization. It was found that the efficiency of the surfactant decomposition in the process with the use of iron nanocompounds was by 10 to 30 % higher than that in the classical method. The amounts of formed deposits were also several times smaller.     

Temporal variations of atmospheric aerosol in four European urban areas

Purpose

The concentrations of PM₁₀ mass, PM_2.5 mass and particle number were continuously measured for 18 months in urban background locations across Europe to determine the spatial and temporal variability of particulate matter.

Methods

Daily PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 samples were continuously collected from October 2002 to April 2004 in background areas in Helsinki, Athens, Amsterdam and Birmingham. Particle mass was determined using analytical microbalances with precision of 1 ??g. Pre- and post-reflectance measurements were taken using smoke-stain reflectometers. One-minute measurements of particle number were obtained using condensation particle counters.

Results

The 18-month mean PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 mass concentrations ranged from 15.4 ??g/m³ in Helsinki to 56.7 ??g/m³ in Athens and from 9.0 ??g/m³ in Helsinki to 25.0 ??g/m³ in Athens, respectively. Particle number concentrations ranged from 10,091 part/cm³ in Helsinki to 24,180 part/cm³ in Athens with highest levels being measured in winter. Fine particles accounted for more than 60% of PM₁₀ with the exception of Athens where PM_2.5 comprised 43% of PM₁₀. Higher PM mass and number concentrations were measured in winter as compared to summer in all urban areas at a significance level p?Conclusions Significant quantitative and qualitative differences for particle mass across the four urban areas in Europe were observed. These were due to strong local and regional characteristics of particulate pollution sources which contribute to the heterogeneity of health responses. In addition, these findings also bear on the ability of different countries to comply with existing directives and the effectiveness of mitigation policies.     

Chelator induced phytoextraction and in situ soil washing of Cu

In a soil column experiment, we investigated the effect of 5 mmol kg(-1) soil addition of citric acid, ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA), diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate (DTPA) and [S,S]-stereoisomer of ethylenediamine-disuccinate (EDDS) on phytoextraction of Cu from a vineyard soil with 162.6 mg kg(-1) Cu, into the test plant Brassica rapa var. pekinensis. We also examined the use of a horizontal permeable barrier, composed of layers of nutrient enriched sawdust and apatite, for reduction of chelator induced Cu leaching. The addition of all chelators, except citric acid, enhanced Cu mobility and caused leaching of 19.5-23% of initial total Cu from the soil column. However, Cu plant uptake did not increase accordingly; the most effective was the EDDS treatment, in which plant Cu concentration reached 37.8 +/-1.3 mg kg(-1) Cu and increased by 3.3-times over the control treatment. The addition of none of the chelators in the concentration range from 5 to 15 mmol kg(-1) exerted any toxic effect on respiratory soil microorganisms. When EDDS was applied into the columns with horizontal permeable barriers, only 0.53 +/- 0.32% of the initial total Cu was leached. Cu (36.7%) was washed from the 18 cm soil layer above the barrier and accumulated in the barrier. Our results indicate that rather than for a reduction of Cu leaching during rather ineffective chelate induced Cu phytoextraction, horizontal permeable barriers could be more effective in a new remediation technique of controlled in situ soil washing of Cu with biodegradable chelates.     

Heavy metal bioaccumulation by wild edible saprophytic and ectomycorrhizal mushrooms

Heavy metals cause serious problems in the environment, and they can be accumulated in organisms, especially in the higher fungi. The concentration of Ni, Cr, Pb, Cd, and Hg in 10 species of edible mushrooms in Medvednica Nature Park, Croatia was therefore determined. In addition, the similarity between the studied species was determined by cluster analysis based on concentrations of the aforementioned metals in the fruiting bodies. The contents of nickel, chromium, lead, cadmium, and mercury in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms were obtained by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. The highest concentrations of Ni (3.62 mg kg^?1), Cr (3.01 mg kg^?1), and Cd (2.67 mg kg^?1) were determined in Agaricus campestris. The highest concentration of Pb (1.67 mg kg^?1) was determined in Macrolepiota procera, and the highest concentration of Hg (2.39 mg kg^?1) was determined in Boletus edulis. The concentration of all heavy metals significantly differed (p?<?0.001) between examined saprophytic and ectomycorrhizal mushrooms. Considering anatomical part of the fruiting body (cap-stipe), a considerably higher concentration of the analyzed elements was found in the cap for all mushroom species. According to calculated bioconcentration factors, all the examined species were found to be bioexclusors of Ni, Cr, and Pb and bioaccumulators of Cd and Hg. Cluster analysis performed on the basis of the accumulation of the studied metals revealed great phenotypic similarity of mushroom species belonging to the same genus and partial similarity of species of the same ecological affiliation.

     

Problems of the coasts erosion in the North–Eastern Black Sea Region

The seacoasts protection does not stand standard solutions. Every part of a shore needs to be creatively approached and its hydrodynamic, lithodynamic, geological, geomorphological and other peculiarities must be thoroughly studied for each particular situation. It takes a complex scientific approach considering not only local features, but also the reaction of the whole lithodynamic system in limits of which the coast protective activity is planned with consideration of calculated hydrodynamic parameters (waves, sea level, etc.).     

Occupational exposure assessment on an FM mast: electric field and SAR values

Electric field strengths normally exceed the reference levels for occupational exposure in close vicinity to large frequency modulation (FM) transmitters. Thus, a detailed investigation on compliance with basic restrictions is needed before any administrative protection measures are applied. We prepared a detailed numerical model of a 20-kW FM transmitter on a 32-m mast. An electrically isolated anatomical human model was placed in 3 different positions inside the mast in the region where the values of the electric field were highest. The electric field strengths in this region were up to 700 V/m. The highest calculated whole-body specific absorption rate (SAR) was 0.48 W/kg, whereas the maximum 10-g average SAR in the head and trunk was 1.66 W/kg. The results show that the reference levels in the FM frequency range are very conservative for near field exposure. SAR values are not exceeded even for fields 10 times stronger than the reference levels.     

Simultaneous occupational exposure to FM and UHF transmitters

Occupational exposure caused by large broadcasting transmitters exceeds current reference levels. As it is common for different radio and TV transmitters to share the location, we analysed combined exposure on a 40-m high mast. The frequency modulation (FM) transmitter, located between the 10th and 30th metre, had the power of 25 kW, whereas an ultra-high frequency (UHF) transmitter of 5 kW occupied the top 8 m of the mast. Measured and calculated values of the electric field strength exceeded the reference levels up to 10 times; however, the results for the specific absorption rate (SAR) values show that the reference levels are very conservative for FM exposure, i.e., basic restrictions are not exceeded even when the reference levels are exceeded 10 times. However, for UHF exposure the reference levels are not conservative; they give a good prediction of real exposure.     

Distribution of PAHs and PCBs to dissolved organic matter: high distribution coefficients with consequences for environmental fate modeling

Dissolved organic carbon/water distribution coefficients (K(DOC)) were measured for a selection of PCBs with octanol/water partition coefficients (K(OW)) ranging from 10(5.6) to 10(7.5). A solid phase dosing and sampling technique was applied to determine K(DOC) to Aldrich humic acid. This technique is in particular suitable for determining the distribution of very hydrophobic chemicals to complex matrices like humic acids. The K(DOC) values were calculated from the experimental data using a linear model. Determined K(DOC)'s were evaluated in relation to octanol/water partition coefficients of the test compounds, and compared to literature data. Measured K(DOC) values were somewhat higher than literature data, which can probably be attributed to the overestimation of freely dissolved aqueous concentration as a result of incomplete phase separation in other studies, and to the unique character of Aldrich humic acid as a "sorbent" or co-solute or to the fact that Aldrich humic acid is not a typical DOC, and other (adsorption) processes can occur. This study reports DOC distribution coefficients that belong to the highest ones ever measured. In addition, the DOC distribution was discussed in relation to current risk assessment modeling.     

Dependence of home outdoor particulate mass and number concentrations on residential and traffic features in urban areas

The associations between residential outdoor and ambient particle mass, fine particle absorbance, particle number (PN) concentrations, and residential and traffic determinants were investigated in four European urban areas (Helsinki, Athens, Amsterdam, and Birmingham). A total of 152 nonsmoking participants with respiratory diseases, not exposed to occupational pollution, were included in the study, which comprised a 7-day intensive exposure monitoring period of both indoor and home outdoor particle mass and number concentrations. The same pollutants were also continuously measured at ambient fixed sites centrally located to the studied areas (fixed ambient sites). Relationships between concentrations measured directly outside the homes (residential outdoor) and at the fixed ambient sites were pollutant-specific, with substantial variations among the urban areas. Differences were more pronounced for coarse particles due to resuspension of road dust and PN, which is strongly related to traffic emissions. Less significant outdoor-to-fixed variation for particle mass was observed for Amsterdam and Birmingham, predominantly due to regional secondary aerosol. On the contrary, a strong spatial variation was observed for Athens and to a lesser extent for Helsinki. This was attributed to the overwhelming and time-varied inputs from traffic and other local sources. The location of the residence and traffic volume and distance to street and traffic light were important determinants of residential outdoor particle concentrations. On average, particle mass levels in suburban areas were less than 30% of those measured for residences located in the city center. Residences located less than 10 m from a street experienced 133% higher PN concentrations than residences located further away. Overall, the findings of this multi-city study, indicated that (1) spatial variation was larger for PN than for fine particulate matter (PM) mass and varied between the cities, (2) vehicular emissions in the residential street and location in the center of the city were significant predictors of spatial variation, and (3) the impact of traffic and location in the city was much larger for PN than for fine particle mass.     

Relationship between different size classes of particulate matter and meteorology in three European cities

Evidence on the correlation between particle mass and (ultrafine) particle number concentrations is limited. Winter- and spring-time measurements of urban background air pollution were performed in Amsterdam (The Netherlands), Erfurt (Germany) and Helsinki (Finland), within the framework of the EU funded ULTRA study. Daily average concentrations of ambient particulate matter with a 50% cut off of 2.5 microm (PM2.5), total particle number concentrations and particle number concentrations in different size classes were collected at fixed monitoring sites. The aim of this paper is to assess differences in particle concentrations in several size classes across cities, the correlation between different particle fractions and to assess the differential impact of meteorological factors on their concentrations. The medians of ultrafine particle number concentrations were similar across the three cities (range 15.1 x 10(3)-18.3 x 10(3) counts cm(-3)). Within the ultrafine particle fraction, the sub fraction (10-30 nm) made a higher contribution to particle number concentrations in Erfurt than in Helsinki and Amsterdam. Larger differences across the cities were found for PM2.5(range 11-17 microg m(-3)). PM2.5 and ultrafine particle concentrations were weakly (Amsterdam, Helsinki) to moderately (Erfurt) correlated. The inconsistent correlation for PM2.5 and ultrafine particle concentrations between the three cities was partly explained by the larger impact of more local sources from the city on ultrafine particle concentrations than on PM2.5, suggesting that the upwind or downwind location of the measuring site in regard to potential particle sources has to be considered. Also, relationship with wind direction and meteorological data differed, suggesting that particle number and particle mass are two separate indicators of airborne particulate matter. Both decreased with increasing wind speed, but ultrafine particle number counts consistently decreased with increasing relative humidity, whereas PM2.5 increased with increasing barometric pressure. Within the ultrafine particle mode, nucleation mode (10-30 nm) and Aitken mode (30-100 nm) had distinctly different relationships with accumulation mode particles and weather conditions. Since the composition of these particle fractions also differs, it is of interest to test in future epidemiological studies whether they have different health effects.