Resembling a Viper: Implications of Mimicry for Conservation of the Endangered Smooth Snake

The phenomenon of Batesian mimicry, where a palatable animal gains protection against predation by resembling an unpalatable model, has been a core interest of evolutionary biologists for 150 years. An extensive range of studies has focused on revealing mechanistic aspects of mimicry (shared education and generalization of predators) and the evolutionary dynamics of mimicry systems (co‐operation vs. conflict) and revealed that protective mimicry is widespread and is important for individual fitness. However, according to our knowledge, there are no case studies where mimicry theories have been applied to conservation of mimetic species. Theoretically, mimicry affects, for example, frequency dependency of predator avoidance learning and human induced mortality. We examined the case of the protected, endangered, nonvenomous smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) that mimics the nonprotected venomous adder (Vipera berus), both of which occur in the Åland archipelago, Finland. To quantify the added predation risk on smooth snakes caused by the rarity of vipers, we calculated risk estimates from experimental data. Resemblance of vipers enhances survival of smooth snakes against bird predation because many predators avoid touching venomous vipers. Mimetic resemblance is however disadvantageous against human predators, who kill venomous vipers and accidentally kill endangered, protected smooth snakes. We found that the effective population size of the adders in Åland is very low relative to its smooth snake mimic (28.93 and 41.35, respectively).Because Batesian mimicry is advantageous for the mimic only if model species exist in sufficiently high numbers, it is likely that the conservation program for smooth snakes will fail if adders continue to be destroyed. Understanding the population consequences of mimetic species may be crucial to the success of endangered species conservation. We suggest that when a Batesian mimic requires protection, conservation planners should not ignore the model species (or co‐mimic in Mullerian mimicry rings) even if it is not itself endangered. Implications of mimicry for Conservation of the endangered smooth snake     

白眉蝮蛇毒精氨酸酯酶对CHL细胞增殖抑制和染色体畸变的影响

研究了蝮蛇清栓酶的有效成分精氨酸酯酶体外对中国仓鼠肺成纤维细胞 (CHL)增殖和染色体畸变的影响 .精氨酸酯酶的浓度以酶活单位U表示 .细胞增殖抑制试验和染色体畸变试验都用两种方法 :直接法和代谢活性法 .精氨酸酯酶设 3个浓度 :1.0× 10 -3 U /mL ,0 .5× 10 -3 U /mL和 0 .2 5× 10 -3U/mL .其中最高浓度比临床治疗浓度高约10 0倍 .细胞增殖抑制试验采用细胞贴壁培养 ,乙醇固定 ,结晶紫染色 ,单层细胞密度计测定细胞密度 .染色体畸变试验采用给药后 2 4h和 48h收集中期分裂细胞 ,低渗固定 ,制片 ,Giemsa染色 ,观察 10 0个中期分裂细胞的染色体结构异常及多倍体的出现率 .试验结果表明 ,精氨酸酯酶在上述浓度对CHL细胞的增殖没有抑制作用 ,对CHL细胞的染色体结构也没有影响 .表 2参 10     

蛇毒制剂抗肿瘤活性和机理的研究进展

蛇毒含多种酶类和多种不同生理、药理活性蛋白,蛇毒中可分离出心脏毒素、细胞毒素、组分C等,毒性主要由破坏细胞膜而实现.蛇毒制剂治疗癌症有较好的效果,近年来国内外学者也越来越重视蛇毒制剂抗肿瘤机理的研究.蛇毒制剂在体内外的抗癌作用可能与蛇毒能调整多种抗氧化酶的活性,降低自由基的水平相关,另外眼镜蛇蛇毒因子可以通过免疫反应在细胞表面激活补体系统溶解肿瘤细胞,最近的研究还发现蛇毒制剂抑制肿瘤与其诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡有密切关系.     

武汉市蛇类市场初步调查

2006年4月—2008年9月对武汉市蛇类市场进行了调查,共记录了25种蛇类,隶属4科15属。其中列入CITES(2005年)附录Ⅱ的蛇类3种,列为《中国物种红色名录》濒危(EN)物种1种、易危(VU)物种13种、近危(NT)物种1种,湖北省重点保护蛇类8种,国家"三有"保护蛇类22种。武汉蛇类贸易以食用为主,占贸易量的80%以上。分析了蛇类大量贸易的原因,对蛇类市场管理和保护提出了建议。     

16种蛇鳞的微皮纹分析

对16种蛇鳞的扫描电镜观察表明，蛇类鳞片微皮纹的基本结构是由d约05μm横行排列的小孔和介于小孔间向后延伸的指状突构成背鳞的微皮纹结构有种的特异性同一种蛇的原动物、蛇蜕和药材标本相同部位的鳞片具有相同的微皮纹特征因此蛇鳞的微皮纹特征亦可作为蛇类药材的鉴别依据之一，并以背鳞的微皮纹特征为依据，编制了16种蛇背鳞微皮纹特征检索表。     

A systematic review of snake translocations to identify potential tactics for reducing postrelease effects

Advancements in the field of reintroduction biology are needed, but understanding of how to effectively conduct translocations, particularly with snakes, is lacking. We conducted a systematic review of snake translocation studies to identify potential tactics for reducing postrelease effects. We included studies on intentional, human-mediated, wild–wild, or captive–wild translocations to any location, regardless of motive or number of snakes translocated. Only studies that presented results for at least 1 of 4 outcomes (movement behavior, site fidelity, survival, or population establishment) were included. We systematically searched 4 databases for published studies and used 5 methods to search the gray literature. Our search and screening criteria yielded 121 data sources, representing 130 translocation cases. We quantified the association between 15 translocation tactics and short-term translocation outcomes by calculating odds ratios and used forest plots to display results. Snake translocations involved 47 species (from mainly 2 families), and most were motivated by research, were monitored for at least 6 months, occurred in North America, and took place from the 1990s onward. The odds of a positive snake translocation outcome were highest with release of captive reared or juvenile snakes, release of social groups together, delayed release, provision of environmental enrichment or social housing before release, or minimization of distance translocated. The odds of a positive outcome were lowest when snakes were released early in their active season. Our results do not demonstrate causation, but outcomes of snake translocation were associated with 8 tactics (4 of which were strongly correlated). In addition to targeted comparative studies, we recommend practitioners consider the possible influence of these tactics when planning snake translocations.     

Forecasting the Risk of Brown Tree Snake Dispersal from Guam: a Mixed Transport-Establishment Model

Abstract:  The brown tree snake ( Boiga irregularis ) is a devastating invader that has ecologically and economically affected Guam and is poised to disperse further. Interdiction efforts are being conducted on Guam and some of the potential receiving sites, but no tools exist for evaluating the potential for snake incursion; thus, the amount of effort that should be invested in protecting particular sites is unknown. We devised a model that predicts the relative risk of establishment of the brown tree snake (BTS) at a given site. To calculate overall risk, we incorporated in the model information on the likelihood of an organism entering the transportation system, avoiding detection, surviving to arrive at another location, and establishing at the receiving end. On the basis of documented rates of snake arrival at receiving sites, the model produced realistic predictions of invasion risk. Model outputs can thus be used to prioritize interdiction efforts to focus on especially vulnerable receiving locations. We provide examples of the utility of the model in evaluating the impacts of changes in transportation parameters. Finally, the model can be used to evaluate the impacts that BTS establishment at an additional site and that creation of a new source of snakes would have. The use of qualitative inputs allows the model to be adapted by substituting data on other invasive species or transportation systems.     

Effects of incubation temperature on hatchling pine snakes: implications for survival

Incubation temperature in ectothermic vertebrates affects incubation periods, and in some reptiles it affects sex ratios and behavior. I present evidence that incubation temperature affects emergence and post-hatching behavior of pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus) that could influence survival in the weeks before hibernation. Hatchlings incubated at low temperatures remained in the nest longer, had fewer alternate nest openings, and fewer underground tunnels to hide in than did hatchlings from warmer temperatures. These conditions could render hatchlings from low-temperature nests more vulnerable to predation because, if a nest is opened, they are not inside tunnels where they would be protected. Hatchlings from nests incubated at low temperatures took longer to find shade during a thermoregulation test, and were less likely to move about in search of other cover than were those from higher-incubation-temperature artificial nests. Similarly, hatchlings from nests with low incubation temperatures were less responsive to a predatory stimulus and had a longer latency to strike than other hatchlings. Taken together, hatchlings from nests with low incubation temperatures might be less able to avoid predators and find shade than those from nests incubated at higher temperatures, and thus could be expected to have lower survival in nature. Received: 21 July 1997 / Accepted after revision: 15 February 1998     

Human responses to live snakes and their photographs: Evaluation of beauty and fear of the king snakes

Animals are ancestrally important stimuli for us and thus, we pay disproportional attention to them over other objects. Some of them, like snakes, attract attention as well as elicit fear reactions. We assessed human aesthetic preferences and fear reaction aroused by 20 forms of king snakes, represented by live snakes and their photographs. There was no correlation between the beauty and fear response exuded by live snakes, which indicates that these are two independent processes. Evaluation of live snakes tightly correlated with the results obtained from photographs in both beauty and fear tasks. Respondents evaluated aposematic (black-and-white/yellow-red striped) and purely black species as the most fear-evoking, which is discussed in an evolutionary framework. Interestingly, irrespective of the actual task, i.e. evaluation of beauty or fear, respondents categorized the species within similar clusters (cognitive categories).     

On the defensive behavior of the grass snake <Emphasis Type="Italic">Natrix natrix</Emphasis> (Linnaeus, 1758)

Demonstrative imitations in the defensive behavior of grass snakes (Natrix natrix) captured in the Galich’ya Gora Reserve (70 ind.) and Kulikovskii Forestry (13 ind.), Lipetsk oblast, have been analyzed using statistical methods. The results suggest that grass snakes can play dead and imitate a venomous snake independently of their sex, age, and experience in receiving injuries. At the same time, there is evidence that such an ability is a hereditary trait subject to natural selection.