Trade-offs between maternal foraging and fawn predation risk in an income breeder

The choice of neonatal hiding place is critical for ungulates adopting hiding anti-predator strategies, but the consequences of different decisions have rarely been evaluated with respect to offspring survival. First, we investigated how landscape-scale choices made by roe deer fawns and their mothers affected predation risk by red foxes in a forest–farmland mosaic in southeastern Norway. After, we examined the effect of site-specific characteristics and behaviour (i.e. visibility, mother–fawn distance and abundance of the predator’s main prey item—small rodents) on predation risk. The study of habitat use, selection and habitat-specific mortality revealed that roe deer utilised the landscape matrix in a functional way, with different habitats used for feeding, providing maternal care and as refugia from predation. Mothers faced a trade-off between foraging and offspring survival. At the landscape-scale decisions were primarily determined by maternal energetic constraints and only secondarily by risk avoidance. Indeed, forage-rich habitats were strongly selected notwithstanding the exceptionally high densities of rodents which increased fawn predation. At fine spatial scales, a high visibility of the mother was the major factor determining predation risk; however, mothers adjusted their behaviour to the level of risk at the bed site to minimise predation. Fawns selected both landscape-scale refugia and concealed bed sites, but failure to segregate from the main prey of red foxes led to higher predation. This study provides evidence for the occurrence of spatial heterogeneity in predation risk and shows that energetically stressed individuals can tackle the foraging-safety trade-off by adopting scale-dependent anti-predator responses.