Concentration and Recovery of Viruses from Water: A Comprehensive Review |
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Authors: | Luisa A Ikner Charles P Gerba Kelly R Bright |
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Institution: | (1) Antimicrobial Test Laboratories, 1304W. Industrial Blvd, Round Rock, TX 78681, USA;(2) Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Building 38, Room 429, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; |
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Abstract: | Enteric viruses are a cause of waterborne disease worldwide, and low numbers in drinking water can present a significant risk
of infection. Because the numbers are often quite low, large volumes (100–1,000 L) of water are usually processed. The VIRADEL
method using microporous filters is most commonly used today for this purpose. Negatively charged filters require the addition
of multivalent salts and acidification of the water sample to effect virus adsorption, which can make large-volume sampling
difficult. Positively charged filters require no preconditioning of samples, and are able to concentrate viruses from water
over a greater pH range than electronegative filters. The most widely used electropositive filter is the Virosorb 1MDS; however,
the Environmental Protection Agency has added the positively charged NanoCeram filters to their proposed Method 1615. Ultrafilters
concentrate viruses based on size exclusion rather than electrokinetics, but are impractical for field sampling or processing
of turbid water. Elution (recovery) of viruses from filters following concentration is performed with organic (e.g., beef
extract) or inorganic solutions (e.g., sodium polyphosphates). Eluates are then reconcentrated to decrease the sample volume
to enhance detection methods (e.g., cell culture infectivity assays and molecular detection techniques). While the majority
of available filters have demonstrated high virus retention efficiencies, the methods to elute and reconcentrate viruses have
met with varying degrees of success due to the biological variability of viruses present in water. |
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