Estimation of the cancer risk to humans resulting from the presence of cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide in surface water |
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Authors: | Kümmerer Klaus Al-Ahmad Ali |
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Institution: | 1.Department of Environmental Health Sciences, University Medical Centre Freiburg, Breisacherstraße 115b, 79106, Freiburg, Germany ; |
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Abstract: | Background, aim, and scope Anti-tumour agents and their metabolites are largely excreted into effluent, along with other pharmaceuticals. In the past,
investigations have focused on the input and analysis of pharmaceuticals in surface and ground water. The two oxazaphosphorine
compounds, cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide are important cytostatic drugs used in the chemotherapy of cancer and in the treatment
of autoimmune diseases. Their mechanism of action, involving metabolic activation and unspecific alkylation of nucleophilic
compounds, accounts for genotoxic and carcinogenic effects described in the literature and is reason for environmental concern.
The anti-tumour agents cyclophosphamide (CP) and ifosfamide (IF) were not biodegraded in biodegradation tests. They were not
eliminated in municipal sewage treatment plants. Degradation by photochemically formed HO radicals may be of some relevance
only in shallow, clear, and nitrate-rich water bodies but could be further exploited for elimination of these compounds by
advanced oxidation processes, i.e. in a treatment of hospital waste water. Therefore, CP and IF are assumed to persist in
the aquatic environment and to enter drinking water via surface water. The risk to humans from input of CP and IF into surface
water is not known. |
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