The implications of planting mode on cadmium uptake and remobilization in rice: Field experiments across growth stages

•Direct seeding (DS) method led to more distributed Cd in aerial parts of rice. •The Cd content was significantly higher in brown rice with planting mode of DS. •Using DS lessened the Fe plaque covering the root surface in all growth stages. •Transplantation mode should be considered as a priority in Cd-contaminated areas. Global rice production practices have gradually changed from a reliance on transplanting to direct seeding. Yet how this shift may alter cadmium (Cd) accumulation in rice is poorly known. Here we conducted field experiments with two rice genotypes cultivars that were planted using three methods: via direct seeding (DS), seedling throwing (ST), and manual transplanting (MT). Rice samples were collected during four growth stages. The formation and distribution of iron plaque were analyzed using DCB (dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate) extractions and observed under micro-XRF (micro X-ray fluorescence). The results revealed that, in each growth stage, DS rice was more apt to harbor Cd distributed in the plant’s aerial parts, and the Cd concentration of brown rice from DS was 21.8%–43.3% significantly higher than those from ST and MT at maturity stage (p<0.05). During the vegetative stages, the Cd uptake percentage was higher in DS than MT rice, and those plants arising from the DS method were capable of absorbing more Cd earlier in their growth and development. Conversely, using DS decreased the amount of iron plaque covering the root surface in every growth stage, especially in the critical period of Cd accumulation, such that the roots’ middle areas were distinguished by a near-complete absence of iron plaque, thus weakening its role as an effective barrier to Cd uptake from soil. Collectively, this study demonstrated that implementing the DS mode of planting will increase Cd’s distribution in the aboveground parts of rice, and heightening the risk of Cd contamination in grain.