药品和个人护理品(PPCPs)在土壤中的迁移转化和毒性效应研究进展

药品和个人护理品(PPCPs)是一类新型有机污染物,随着生产和使用量的大量增加,越来越多的PPCPs进入土壤,对土壤生态环境和人体健康构成潜在威胁。文章根据现有研究,综述了国内外有关PPCPs在土壤中的吸附、生物降解、迁移、挥发等环境行为的研究进展,并分别评述了PPCPs对土壤生物(包括微生物、动物、植物)和人体的生态毒性效应。有关研究表明,PPCPs主要吸附于高有机质的土壤表层,低有机质亚表层土壤中PPCPs具有极高的迁移潜力;生物降解是PPCPs从土壤中去除的主要途径,受化合物自身结构和土壤理化特性的影响。高浓度PPCPs会对土壤生物(包括土壤微生物、动物和植物)产生急性生理生化甚至遗传毒性效应,最终可通过饮食危害人体健康,而PPCPs残留在土壤中的环境浓度通常较低,对土壤生物及人类极易造成慢性毒性损伤。目前有关土壤环境中PPCPs污染的研究尚处于初级阶段,今后可在真实土壤环境中痕量PPCPs的调查分析、迁移转化规律、生态健康风险及其代谢产物的行为和毒性等方面加强研究,以期为土壤环境中PPCPs生态风险的准确评估提供理论依据。     

氯代苯类化合物在土壤中的微生物降解

本文采用土柱装置对某地区城市污水中所含的氯苯、对-二氯苯和1,2,3-三氯苯在该地区土壤中的微生物降解进行了动态研究,并通过对-二氯苯在土壤及水中的降解实验,筛选出了可降解对-二氯苯的一株细菌,经鉴定为芽孢杆菌(Bacillus SP.),在对-二氯苯降解的同时,有氯苯出现并得到确证.     

农药在土壤环境中的行为研究

农药的迁移转化对土壤环境质量的变化有着重要的影响。文章从土壤环境中的农药出发,探讨了土壤中农药的转化过程,阐述了农药在土壤中的吸附与解吸行为以及各种因素对农药转化的作用,并提出了对农药行为的新的研究方向。     

典型土壤持久性有机污染物空间分布特征及环境行为研究进展

持久性有机污染物(POPs)由于具有致癌性、致畸性和致突变效应的"三致性",近年来已经越来越受到人们的关注.本文综合分析了有机氯农药(OCPs)、多氯联苯(PCBs)、二英类(PCDD/Fs)、多环芳烃(PAHs)及多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)等几种典型土壤持久性有机污染物的空间分布特征.同时,对土壤POPs的挥发作用、吸附/解吸、迁移、生物降解、化学降解等环境行为进行了深入分析,并指出了这些环境行为的影响因素,包括POPs的物质属性、土壤理化性质及周围环境等共性影响因素及其它因素.此外,针对国内外研究现状中存在的问题,提出了相关建议,指出控制土壤POPs污染的根本手段在于管理措施的完善.     

冻融作用对土壤磷素迁移转化影响研究进展

磷素是生态系统中重要的生源要素之一,其在土壤中的丰缺变化制约着植物的生长状况,寒冷地区土壤的结构与理化性质常年受到冻结和融化的周期性影响,而冻融作用又强烈的影响着土壤磷的迁移转化途径,磷的生物地球化学行为是生态系统初级生产力的决定因素之一。系统的归纳分析了近年来国内外关于土壤吸附作用、土壤含水率以及土壤生物对磷素迁移转化过程影响的研究报道,主要研究结论认为：（1）冻融循环导致土壤颗粒粒径变小以及铁铝化合物形态改变,进而影响了磷在冻融土壤上的吸附行为;（2）土壤水在冻融作用下的固液相转换改变了土壤浸提液中磷的含量,而土壤含水率的高低与磷在土壤中的汇聚和释放存在密切关系;（3）土壤微生物和植物体内的磷在冻融过程中成为土壤中有机磷的主要来源之一。众多研究结果显示,同一制约因素在冻融作用驱动下对土壤磷的影响效果各不相同,这是因为冻融过程中土壤成分、水分含量、冻融时间、循环次数、植被类型和微生物状况等条件共同影响着磷的迁移转化行为,众多相互关联的因子产生的综合效应导致磷在冻融土壤中的迁移转化行为各异。总结分析当前的研究成果,提出冻融作用对土壤磷的影响应在土壤景观尺度、研究方法和手段、预防和治理措施方面进行深入的研究和探索。     

畜禽养殖排放的雌激素对周边水体环境的影响

环境雌激素是一大类化学物质,它们能够干扰生物体内激素的合成、分泌、转运、活性等,或与生物体内激素结构相似而发挥激素作用,对生物体的生长、繁殖及行为产生不利影响。环境雌激素包括天然雌激素及人工合成类雌激素。随着国内畜禽养殖的规模与数量的不断扩大,养殖场成为了一个很大的环境雌激素的产生源,其环境风险应得到相应的重视。目前对畜禽养殖过程中环境雌激素的产生量以及雌激素进入环境后的迁移转化行为已有很多的研究,包括野外的调查与实验室内机理研究。畜禽养殖过程产生的大量雌激素进入环境后能够被土壤吸附及微生物降解。室内的静态平衡吸附实验、土柱迁移试验及降解研究均表明雌激素进入环境后绝大部分迅速被吸附到土壤颗粒或悬浮胶体、沉积物颗粒上,同时发生转化与生物降解,由此推断其对周边环境中的雌激素贡献很小。然而,野外调查结果却表明实际情况下雌激素的迁移性高于理论期望值。因此,畜禽养殖对周边环境中雌激素的贡献量的大小尚未明确。本论文综述了畜禽养殖过程中环境雌激素的排放情况,结合国内外的调查研究,阐述了畜禽养殖产生的环境雌激素在土壤及水体中的迁移与降解行为,探讨了影响准确评估畜禽养殖排泄物对周边水体中雌激素贡献大小的因子,并提出了今后应开展原位吸附与迁移的实验,重点考虑天然有机质及抗生素等共存物质对雌激素环境行为的影响,建立综合模型来估算不同时期养殖场对周围水环境雌激素的贡献量的建议。     

农药在土壤中迁移的研究方法

农药对地下水的污染已日益为人们密切关注，本文详细介绍了用土壤柱和土壤薄层层析法研究农药在土壤迁移行为用于预测或评价农药对地下水污染程度的研究方法。     

土壤和地下水中多环芳烃生物降解研究进展

多环芳烃是一类普遍存在于环境中的难降解的危险性"三致"有机污染物。受污染的土壤和地下水中的多环芳烃,生物降解是其归宿的主要途径。研究表明,对于土壤中低分子量多环芳烃类化合物,微生物一般以唯一碳源方式代谢;而大多数细菌和真菌对四环或四环以上的多环芳烃的降解作用一般以共代谢方式开始。文章重点论述了多环芳烃的来源、降解多环芳烃的微生物、生物降解机理、影响生物降解的因素以及生物修复方法。认为今后的研究方向是高分子量多环芳烃的降解机理与降解途径,基因工程技术在多环芳烃生物降解方面的应用,以及生物表面活性剂产生的机理及其在实际处理中的应用等。     

有机污染物生物降解途径控制反应的预测与优势菌选择模型的建立

本文把有机污染物生物降解途径的理论测和量化剖析相结合确定生物降解途径中的控制反应,给出控制反ＱＳＢＲ的概念模式。在此基础上上建立了Ｐｓｅｕｄｏｍｏｎａｓｓｐ．典型生物降解途径以应的ＱＳＢＲ模型,利用建立的模型指导１,２－１,４－二氯苯和１,２,４－三氯苯生物处理优势菌的选择。     

土壤-植物系统中多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)的迁移与转化研究进展

多溴联苯醚(PBDEs)是一类重要的新型持久性有机污染物,因其具有亲脂和难降解特性,易在土壤和沉积物等环境介质以及生物体内累积,同时会发生脱溴还原代谢和氧化代谢,生成毒性更大的低溴代PBDEs、羟基PBDEs(OH-PBDEs)和甲氧基PBDEs(MeO-PBDEs).研究PBDEs在土壤-植物系统的迁移转化对于认识PBDEs的陆生生态环境行为,评价其生态风险以及对食物链的潜在暴露风险都具有重要的意义.本文从土壤中PBDEs的代谢与转化行为,PBDEs的植物吸收与传输特征及其关键影响因素,以及植物体内PBDEs的脱溴、羟基化和甲氧基化代谢行为几个方面总结了PBDEs在土壤-植物系统迁移转化的最新研究进展,并就将来的研究方向提出一些思考和展望,有助于深入认识PBDEs及其代谢产物的环境归趋.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.