CONSOLIDATION OF A STREAM QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK1

ABSTRACT A method for systematic consolidation of a fixed station water quality monitoring network using dynamic programming is described. The approach utilizes a hierarchical structure; stations are allocated to what are termed primary basins on the basis of a weighted attribute score, and specific station locations within each primary basin are specified using a criterion based on stream order numbers. The method has been applied to the Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle (Metro) stream and river quality monitoring network. The results aided in a 1982 metro decision to reduce the scope of its fixed station monitoring from 81 to 47 stations, at an annual savings of approximately $33,000 per year exclusive of equipment depreciation and indirect costs.     

NEW ZEALAND'S NATIONAL WATER QUALITY MONITORING NETWORK - DESIGN AND FIRST YEAR'S OPERATION1

ABSTRACT: The design and implementation of a national surface water quality monitoring network for New Zealand are described. Some of the lessons learned from the first year of operation are also addressed. Underpinning the design, and specified in advance, are the goal and objectives, the data quality assurance system, and the mechanism for data interpretation and reporting. Because of the difficulties associated with the use of a multitude of different agencies, only one agency is involved in field work and one laboratory undertakes the analysis. Staff training has been given a high priority. The network has been designed to give good trend detectability for regular sampling over a 5–10 year period.     

GROUND WATER MONITORING NETWORK DESIGN USING MULTIPLE CRITERIA DECISION MAKING ANT) GEOSTATISTICS1

ABSTRACT: A multi-criteria approach to ground water quality monitoring network design is developed. The methodology combines multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) and modifications of geostatistical variance reduction analysis. Composite programming, a distance based optimization algorithm that employs a hierarchial structure, is used for the MCDM component of the design methodology. MCDM allows the consideration of numerous, often conflicting, design criteria. The methodology is useful for identifying the preferred combination of direct borehole and indirect geo-electric data. It also permits the use of prior information during initial stages of network development. Multi-variate kriging is employed to evaluate network performance using the combination of direct borehole data and indirect geoelectric data. Weighted measures of estimation variance are used as primary measures of performance, with the reduction in estimation variance being computed by the fictitious point method. Case study results demonstrate that the network design methodology can be used in both early and late phases of network development. It also leads to selection of the preferred combination and spatial orientation of direct and indirect data sources while considering cost-effectiveness and performance of alternative designs.     

WATER QUALITY MONITORING: WHERE'S THE BEEF?1

ABSTRACT: Water quality monitoring, as a function of society's efforts to manage the environment, is the contact mechanism that management and the public has with the actual water quality in the environment. Water quality monitoring has been studied extensively for many years to ensure that it produces information about water quality conditions. Current efforts to reduce government spending will have negative impacts on those government functions deemed to be non-responsive to the needs of the public. How well does water quality monitoring inform taxpayers about the status and trends in water quality conditions in the United States? This paper reviews a number of past efforts to “improve” water quality monitoring, discusses barriers to such improvement, and suggests ways that monitoring can be made more accountable for the information it should be producing for public understanding of water quality conditions. In particular, the need for standardization in data analysis and reporting of information to the public, is highlighted.     

APPLICATION OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS TO GROUNDWATER MONITORING NETWORK DESIGN1

ABSTRACT: Effective monitoring configurations for contaminant detection in groundwater can be designed by analyzing the spatial relationships between candidate sampling sites and aquifer zones susceptible to contamination. Examples of such zones are the domain underlying the contaminant source, zones of probable contaminant migration, and areas occupied by water supply wells. Geographic information systems (GIS) are well-suited to performing key groundwater monitoring network design tasks, such as calculating values for distance variables which quantify the proximity of candidate sites to zones of high pollution susceptibility, and utilizing these variables to quantify relative monitoring value throughout a model domain. Through a case study application, this paper outlines the utility of GIS for detection-based groundwater quality monitoring network design. The results suggest that GIS capabilities for analyzing spatially referenced data can enhance the field-applicability of established methodologies for groundwater monitoring network design.     

REGULATORY WATER QUALITY MONITORING: A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE1

ABSTRACT: Regulatory water quality monitoring has evolved to the point where it is a rather complex system encompassing many monitoring purposes and involving many monitoring activities. Lack of a system's perspective of regulatory monitoring hinders the development of effective and efficient monitoring programs to support water quality management. In this paper the regulatory water quality monitoring system is examined in a total systems context. The purposes of regulatory monitoring are reviewed and categorized according to their legal evolution. The activities of regulatory monitoring are categorized and organized into a system which follows the flow of information through the monitoring program. The monitoring purposes and activities are combined to form a monitoring system matrix - a framework within which the total regulatory water quality monitoring system is defined. The matrix, by defining the regulatory monitoring system and clarifying many interactions within the system, provides a basis upon which a more thorough approach to managing, evaluating, and eventually optimizing regulatory monitoring can be developed.     

ESTABLISHING STATISTICAL DESIGN CRITERIA FOR WATER QUALITY MONITORING SYSTEMS: REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS1

ABSTRACT: Regulatory water quality management has placed fairly extensive information expectations on routine, fixed-station monitoring without a corresponding emphasis being placed on the need to design monitoring systems to meet these expectations. To correct the situation there is increasing interest in developing more quantitative monitoring system design procedures which incorporate the statistical nature of sampling. In examining the development of such quantitative criteria, this paper describes the roles of statistics in a systematic approach to monitoring - initial design and routine reporting of results - and reviews the use of statistics in each. The paper emphasizes the need to tie the two together, via statistical design criteria, in order for the identified information expectations to be met in a statistically sound manner. However, the use of statistics in water quality monitoring is noted as currently being as much an art as it is a science.     

SAMPLING FREQUENCY SELECTION FOR REGULATORY WATER QUALITY MONITORING1

ABSTRACT: The selection of sampling frequencies in order to achieve reasonably small and uniform confidence interval widths about annual sample means or sample geometric means of water quality constituents is suggested as a rational approach to regulatory monitoring network design. Methods are presented for predicting confidence interval widths at specified sampling frequencies while considering both seasonal variation and serial correlation of the quality time series. Deterministic annual cycles are isolated and serial dependence structures of the autoregressive, moving average type are identified through time series analysis of historic water quality records. The methods are applied to records for five quality constituents from a nine-station network in Illinois. Confidence interval widths about annual geometric means are computed over a range of sampling frequencies appropriate in regulatory monitoring. Results are compared with those obtained when a less rigorous approach, ignoring seasonal variation and serial correlation, is used. For a monthly sampling frequency the error created by ignoring both seasonal variation and serial correlation is approximately 8 percent. Finally, a simpler technique for evaluating serial correlation effects based on the assumption of AR(1) type dependence is examined. It is suggested that values of the parameter p₁, in the AR(1) model should range from 0.75 to 0.90 for the constituents and region studied.     

DESIGN OF AN INDEX OF WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the formulation of an Index of Water Quality to evaluate the level of pollution in fresh water. A Four-Round Delphi equation, using a panel of seven nationally recognized water scientists, was performed to ascertain the pollutants to be included in the index, the relationship between the quantity of these pollutants in the water and the resulting quality of the water, and the importance of each pollution variable to each water use as well as to overall pollution. A multiplicative index was used to bring the pollutants together into one system.     

CONSIDERATIONS OF SCALE IN WATER QUALITY MONITORING AND DATA ANALYSIS1

ABSTRACT: An assumption of scale is inherent in any environmental monitoring exercise. The temporal or spatial scale of interest defines the statistical model which would be most appropriate for a given system and thus affects both sampling design and data analysis. Two monitoring objectives which are strongly tied to scale are the estimation of average conditions and the evaluation of trends. For both of these objectives, the time or spatial scale of interest strongly influences whether a given set of observations should be regarded as independent or serially correlated and affects the importance of serial correlation in choosing statistical methods. In particular serial correlation has a much different effect on the estimation of long-term means than it does on the estimation of specific-period means. For estimating trends, a distinction between serial correlation and trend is scale dependent. An explicit consideration of scale in monitoring system design and data analysis is, therefore, most important for producing meaningful statistical information.     

MONITORING STRATEGIES TO DETERMINE COMPLIANCE WITH WATER QUALITY OBJIECTIVES1

ABSTRACT: Two sampling strategies designed to test for compliance with water quality objectives are examined. For objectives based on long-term mean requirements, fixed frequency sampling at frequent intervals is most advantageous regardless of the underlying distribution of the data. For objectives that are based on maximum allowable concentrations, effective sampling strategies increase the likelihood of detecting noncompliance. If data are highly autocorrelated or sharply seasonal in distribution, an exceedance-driven sampling strategy is more effective and efficient for detecting violations than fixed frequency sampling. However, data generated by exceedance-driven sampling provide biased estimates of mean and standard deviation.     

A PRACTICAL MODEL INTEGRATING QUALITY ASSURANCE INTO ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING1

ABSTRACT: A model of comprehensive environmental monitoring process with integral quality assurance is presented. This model views the monitoring process as iterative cycles of a series of elements: design, plan, protocols, preparation, field liaison, sample collection, sample handling, laboratory analysis, data transmission, data validation, data approval, data provision, statistical analysis, and reporting. Quality assurance is linked to each element, not just to laboratory analysis. The program of quality assurance ensures that environmental monitoring data are compatible with the project goals, are comparable between various sampling agencies, and maintain a high degree of scientific credibility. The key characteristics of the overall quality assurance process are detailed documentation, timely resolution of problems, regular reporting, and routine independent audits.     

ELEMENTS OF A WATER QUALITY INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR THE STATE OF ILLINOIS1

ABSTRACT: A great deal of information can be derived from study of standard stream monitoring data, if these are properly ordered and organized. This information may then be used to make decisions about water quality management. Among critical information items are evaluation of performance to standards, determination of seasonality and time-trends of water quality conditions, and estimation of the effects on water quality to be expected from load reductions or standards modifications. Additional information on the magnitude of individual pollution sources is also critical to water quality management. Each of these items can be derived within the water quality information system which is currently under development for the State of Illinois.     

GOALS AND DATA COLLECTION DESIGNS FOR WATER QUALITY MONITORING1

ABSTRACT: Water quality monitoring cannot address every information need through one data collection procedure. This paper discusses the goals and related procedures for designing water quality monitoring programs. The discussion focuses on the broad information needs of those agencies operating water quality networks. These information needs include the ability to assess trends and environmental impacts, determine compliance with objectives or standards, estimate mass transport, and perform general surveillance. Each of these information needs has different data requirements. This paper outlines these goals and discusses factors to consider in developing a monitoring plan on a site by site basis.     

QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF WATER QUALITY SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT: To assure attainment and maintenance of desired water quality levels in our rivers and streams, systematic monitoring must be performed. A preliminary phase of the design of water quality surveillance systems is the specification of sampling frequencies and station locations throughout the basin; that is, the development of an adequate space/time sampling plan. The purpose of this paper is to present some quantitative methods which have been developed to identify candidate sets of sampling frequencies and station locations, and to establish priorities for implementing the different frequencies and locations. These methods are useful in the cost/effectiveness trade-off analyses in surveillance system design, and are based on the surveillance system objective of pollution abatement in which it is desired to detect violations in state-federal water quality standards. A spatial priority measure is developed which is dependent both on the water quality profile in the stream and on the information obtained from monitoring stations located in other reaches. Also, a temporal sampling priority rating is presented which is a measure of the effectiveness of the surveillance system with respect to its ability to detect the violations in the standards. To illustrate the quantitative methods, the procedures are applied to the Wabash River Basin.     

INFLUENCE OF WELL WATER QUALITY VARIABILITY ON SAMPLING DECISIONS AND MONITORING1

ABSTRACT: Local governmental agencies responsible for decisions in ground water quality management need not only data on ground water quality but they also must understand the relationship of accuracies and risks associated with this data as related to the number of wells to sample. In this report we address this problem by using the philosophical doctrines of probabilism and relativism with simple statistical procedures. This requires a reasonable estimate of the population variance in a quality parameter for a given management-unit area, and requires that the decisionmaker formulate constraints with an acceptable standard error of the sample mean and be willing to accept some level of probability of being Wrong. This technique is illustrated using a 21-year data base of well water chemical data in a 653 km² ground water quality study area in the San Joaquin Valley of California.     

COLIFORMS AND WATER QUALITY: USE OF DATA IN PROJECT DESIGN AND OPERATION1

ABSTRACT: Knowledge of coliform transport and disappearance may provide information for project design and operation that minimizes potential water quality problems such as the violation of body contact recreation standards. Storm events were sampled in the Caddo River above DeGray Reservoir, Arkansas, and then tracked through the reservoir using the increased turbidity associated with the storm flows. Fecal coliforms were sampled both in the river and throughout the water column in the reservoir. In general, increased fecal coliform concentrations were closely associated with the increased turbidity resulting from the storm flows. This association existed for all three types of turbidity plume movement - overflow, interflow, and underflow. As the turbidity plume moved down the reservoir, fecal coliform concentrations decreased due to die-off, settling, and dilution. With several assumptions, it is possible to use this information to assist in locating recreational sites in a reservoir or to anticipate possible body contact standard violations at existing recreation sites.     

A REVIEW ON DECISION MODELS IN ECONOMICS OF REGIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT The literature on decision models in economics of regional water quality management is reviewed and classified.     

EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY AND MONITORING IN THE ST. LUCIE ESTUARY,FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: The St. Lucie River and its tributaries form a major estuarine system on the southeast coast of Florida. This system is strongly affected by anthropogenic influences, including controlled releases of freshwater from Lake Okeechobee through the St. Lucie Canal and an extensive artificial drainage and irrigation system in the watershed. In the present study, three years of biweekly water quality monitoring data from the estuary were examined. The major stresses to the system stem from high variability of the salinity, frequent low dissolved oxygen (DO) events, and light limitation due to high levels of humic substances brought into the system with the fresh water. Nutrient levels also are high. Management goals for the system, including improvement of DO and water clarity, will require reduction in quantity and variability of freshwater releases.