Conserving the species-rich meadows of Europe

Owing to changes in agricultural practices throughout Europe, with greater emphasis on intensification, traditionally managed hay meadows have become scarce. Their loss has also meant the loss of species diversity. One of the few areas of Europe where traditional management is still practised is in Northern Spain.The hay meadows of Northern Spain can be defined as semi-natural, species-rich communities that are maintained by one or more factors which are under the direct control of man. The traditional management to which they are subjected has led to a high species diversity. For centuries the meadows have been important to man in supporting cattle during the winter. There is now little need for further increase of production. However, the importance of the need for conservation of species diversity and protection of ecologically sensitive areas is now recognised. Although the biological richness of the hay meadows is well known, few studies have been made of the effects of different traditional management regimes on the diversity and floristic composition of these grasslands.A survey was carried out to examine the effects of traditional management on the floristic composition, diversity and production of these meadows. The area studied is situated in the Valdeón valley, northwestern Spain (Cantabrian Mountains) and consists of a deep valley in which arboreal vegetation is represented by beech (Fagus sylvatica) forests. The survival of semi-natural habitats and traditional forms of management and also the low use of chemical fertilisers compared with Northern Europe are the most important reasons for the richness of these habitats. In this study, cutting for hay once per year, non-irrigation non-manuring and grazing in autumn was correlated with high species diversity. The future conservation of these habitats will depend on the formulation of support to continue with traditional management practices.     

Changes in wet meadow vegetation after 20 years of different management in a field experiment (North-West Germany)

Conservation and restoration of semi-natural wet grasslands often suffer from poor knowledge on successional pathways of respective habitats under different mowing treatments to derive profound management concepts. In this study, we present the results of a 20-year experiment in six semi-natural wet grassland sites in NW Germany including mowing with and without fertilizer addition and fallow. Succession was recorded by permanent plots. The studied wet grassland communities responded quite similar under equal management. Fallow resulted in the most significant changes in floristic and functional composition facilitating highly competitive rushes and tall forbs. The changes were more pronounced the more the experimental management treatment differed from the former use. For all mowing treatments without fertilizer application, we still observed directed changes in the floristic composition even after 20 years. In particular mowing twice led to a shift in floristic composition towards stress-tolerant plants with low nutrient demands, which was paralleled by decreasing productivity and strongly diminishing Ellenberg nutrient values. Our results documented that restoration of low-yielding target communities by regular mowing is possible – even in an area with high atmospheric nitrogen inputs. However, our results also show that succession did not come to an end even after 20 years, most obviously due to the continuous but very slow immigration and spread of new species.     

不同干扰类型对呼伦贝尔草甸草原群落结构及物种多样性影响的比较

采用样方法,对比研究了2009—2011年刈割和围封干扰对呼伦贝尔草甸草原植物群落结构和物种多样性的影响. 结果表明:2009—2011年,围封干扰下建群种种群相对重要值分别为15.67%、17.73%、17.60%;而刈割干扰下建群种种群相对重要值分别为16.86%、14.84%、12.36%,呈明显下降趋势;表明围封干扰可促进建群种种群生长,而刈割则有一定的抑制作用. 2种干扰类型导致的植物群落生态类型变化趋势差异尚不显著. 2009—2011年,刈割干扰下,Margalef物种丰富度指数分别为6.05、4.58、4.27,Shannon-Wiener多样性指数分别为3.13、2.89、2.79,Pielou均匀度指数分别为0.90、0.91、0.90;围封干扰下,Margalef物种丰富度指数分别为6.46、6.03、5.32,Shannon-Wiener多样性指数分别为3.26、3.18、2.98,Pielou均匀度指数分别为0.87、0.87、0.85. 可见,在相同年份,刈割干扰下Margalef物种丰富度指数和Shannon-Wiener多样性指数均低于围封干扰,Pielou均匀度指数均高于围封干扰. 说明围封干扰有利于植物物种多样性的维持,而适度的刈割干扰则有利于植物群落的均一化.      

The influence of grassland management on ground beetles (Carabidae, Coleoptera) in Swiss montane meadows

Effects of grassland management type and intensity on carabid species richness, number of individuals and species composition were studied in the Swiss Prealps. Carabids were censused in 2001 and 2002 in 21 mown and 20 grazed meadows by means of pitfall traps.Mean species richness was significantly higher in mown plots than in grazed plots and species composition was significantly different between these two management types. Additionally, different species characteristic for mown and grazed plots were found. These results suggest that mown meadows and grazed meadows represent two habitat types for carabid beetles.Within both habitats, management intensity was quantified by fertilizing intensity, the number of cuts, cattle density and/or grazing intensity. The relationship between management intensity and the number of individuals and species was positive. Higher fertilizing intensity was the most important factor for higher species richness and had a significant influence on species composition in both habitats. Other variables positively related to the number of individuals, were the number of cuts in mown meadows and grazing intensity and altitude in grazed meadows. Additionally to fertilizing intensity, cattle density was positively related to the number of species in grazed meadows. These results illustrate that in the extensive management systems found in the Swiss Alps and Prealps, even intensively managed meadows can sustain high carabid diversity and abundance.     

Positive long-term effect of mulching on species and functional trait diversity in a nutrient-poor mountain meadow in Central Europe

Oligotrophic mountain meadows are threatened biodiversity hotspots throughout Europe. The traditional summer hay-making followed by autumn grazing is no longer economic and question is whether alternative managements can maintain both plant species and functional diversity typical of these habitats. In the Bohemian Forest Mts., we applied three treatments (mowing once a year - i.e., cutting and removing the biomass, mulching once a year - cutting and leaving the crushed biomass to decompose in situ, fallowing - no cutting) in order to assess temporal changes in meadow vegetation, plant trait composition and biomass production in a 13-year experiment. We recorded for each species twenty-five traits as to be most informative of plant strategies related to growth, resource acquisition and carbon-water economy. We compared different components of trait composition (community averages that mostly reflect traits of dominant species vs. the Rao index of functional diversity that reflects trait dissimilarity among species) and their impact on biomass production. We show that mulching promotes species and functional diversity by facilitating heliophilous forbs and legumes with more acquisitive strategies in resource use and release, e.g., higher foliar N and P content. This occurs at the expense of tall grasses (with resource-retentive strategies, e.g., high leaf dry matter content) which dominate the mown and fallow plots. The divergence in most quantitative traits indicates that niche complementarity is the dominant assembly process in mulched plots, which can prevent competitive exclusion and enable species coexistence. The divergent development was detected only after 5-6 years. This slow floristic and functional response is caused by acidity of soil and severe mountain climate that preclude rapid responses of vegetation to land-use changes. We conclude that mulching represents a good compromise maintaining both plant species and functional diversity as well as a relatively high biomass production. Mowing without grazing leads to gradual nutrient loss and thus reduces the productivity and diversity in these oligotrophic ecosystems. Fallowing causes gradual loss in diversity by increased grass competition and litter accumulation.     

Adaptation of plant functional group composition to management changes in calcareous grassland

It is the aim of plant functional research to generate general rules of species assembly and species reactions based on plant functional traits. Here we determined plant functional groups that are important with regard to land use types (grazing, mowing, mulching, burning, abandonment) and looked for mechanisms leading to changes in species composition after management changes in calcareous grasslands.To filter out the set of traits which best described the variation in plant composition along the studied land use gradient and to identify functional groups we chose an iterative three-table ordination method. We included traits related to persistence as well as traits describing the germination niche of a plant. To gain insight into underlying mechanisms which led to differing importance of these plant functional groups at different management regimes we investigated shifts in dominance of the identified functional groups at eight management regimes using long-term vegetation data of a site which was grazed before the onset of different management regimes in 1974. Ongoing unidirectional changes in cover of the four determined functional groups at most of the treatments indicated that even after almost 30 years new equilibria of functional group composition were still not reached.The study showed that other management treatments but grazing and mowing led to changes in functional group composition, which were mainly driven by increasing dominance of a highly competitive species group.     

Long-term changes in soil fertility in organic arable farming systems in England,with particular reference to phosphorus and potassium

Organic farming has undergone significant expansion in Europe over the last decade and it is often seen as a sustainable alternative to intensive agricultural systems. If it is to be truly sustainable, it must maintain levels of soil fertility sufficient for economic crop production in the long-term, whilst also protecting the environment. This paper presents results comparing soils managed organically for at least 15 years, with soils under conventional management, on four arable farms in England. There were no significant differences in total soil organic matter, total nitrogen or C:N ratio between the conventionally and organically managed soils. However, concentrations of extractable potassium and phosphorus were significantly lower in soils managed organically. The largest difference between the conventional and organic fields in potassium concentration was on the oldest organic farm. These results support the argument that organic mixed arable systems are mining reserves of potassium and phosphorus, built up during conventional management, and that changes to organic management practices to increase inputs of potassium and phosphorus are required, if long-term declines in soil fertility, and thus, yields are to be avoided.     

我国草地现状及其退化的主要原因

草地是一种重要的再生资源。研究草地的退化原因并进行分析是草地生态学的研究热点的问题。本文对我国的草地资源的退化的主要原因进行了总结性分析,除自然因素外,还有人为因素,其中过度放牧和刈割是最重要的因素。     

Impact of seed mixture and mowing on food abundance for farmland birds in set-asides

We studied the impact of seed mixtures (grass-clover, less competitive grass vs. meadow plant mixture) and mowing (annual mowing vs. no mowing) on the abundance of seed and insect food for farmland birds in set-aside in a long-term field experiment. In general, seed food was less affected by the treatments than insect food. The impact of seed mixture on the abundance of seed food was dependent on the study year: the highest level recorded in the first year, followed by a substantial decline in the following years. Mowing increased the biomass of seed food. The impact of treatments on insect food abundance differed between the total amount of insect food, and had significant interactions with year. Different insect groups dominated in each year as well as their response to the treatments. For the total amount, the meadow plant seed mixture appeared to be the most beneficial and a slight positive impact of mowing appeared in the last two years of the experiment. The results suggest that the value of set-asides in providing food differs according to food components and declines with increasing age of the set-aside.     

Mortality of pollen beetle (Meligethes spp.) larvae due to predators and parasitoids in rape fields and the effect of conservation strips

In 1996–1999, different mortality factors of pollen beetle larvae were investigated in twenty six rape fields in the northern part of Switzerland which had either a wild flower strip or an extensively managed meadow adjacent to the long side of the field. At 3 and 30 m into the crop from the conservation strip, total mortality, mortality from predators, parasitoids and unspecified factors were measured. Total pollen beetle larval mortality was 66–96%. Mortality caused by predators was 16–27% and there was no significant difference between mortality at 3 m and that 30 m from the extensively managed meadows. However, in fields with wild flower strips adjacent to them, the percentage mortality from predators was significantly greater at 30 m than at 3 m. The range of parasitism of pollen beetle larvae was 0–54% and was on average greater at 3 m than at 30 m. In fields with wild flower strips, the percentage parasitism with Tersilochus heterocerus was significantly higher than in fields with extensively managed meadows. However, mortality from all parasitoids was only 1–2% and there was no significant difference between 3 and 30 m. The effect of parasitoids on pollen beetle mortality was masked by the high unspecified mortality and the mortality from predators. The unspecified mortality was 46–72% and was significantly greater in 1998 and 1999 than in 1996 and 1997. These differences are probably because of meteorological factors (wet in 1999 and dry in 1998). The possible influences of the two types of conservation strips on pollen beetle larval density were investigated. The results show that in fields with adjacent wild flower strips, the pollen beetle larvae were more evenly distributed (but not significantly so) than in fields with extensively managed meadows where larval density decreases faster from the edge into the rape field.     

区域性气候变化对长江中下游流域植被覆盖的影响

利用2000─2010年MODIS EVI(增强型植被指数)数据和气候资料,对长江中下游流域区域性气候变化对植被覆盖的影响进行了综合研究. 结果显示:①2000—2010年间长江中下游流域植被覆盖度呈上升趋势,EVI年均值从0.302增至0.318,增幅达5.57%,增长主要出现在春季. 各植被类型中,常绿阔叶林、落叶阔叶林、混交林和人工农田植被覆盖度增加最为显著. ②研究区整体植被覆盖较好,但地域差异较大, EVI高值区分布在东南部南岭、武夷山、九岭山一带;中部江河湖泊区、长江两岸大型城市周边区域植被覆盖较差. ③气温是植被覆盖变化的主要影响因子,尤其春季表现最为显著;由于常年降水充沛,研究区降水量对植被覆盖影响程度不及气温;日照时数仅在夏季对当月植被覆盖有一定影响;相对湿度对植被覆盖影响较低,但在秋季对植被覆盖影响时间较长,可持续3个月. ④气候变化对自然植被覆盖的影响主要表现在湖南省和湖北省西部;对湖南省中部和安徽省中北部地区人工农田植被的影响较显著. ⑤空间相关性研究表明,长江中下游流域植被覆盖度增加除与自然条件改善有关外,国家近年来实施的各项生态工程也起到了积极的作用.      

长江流域植被净初级生产力对未来气候变化的响应

研究基于气象观测和B2气候变化情景数据,利用大气-植被相互作用模型(AVIM2)模拟了1981—2000年和2010—2050年两个时段内植被NPP的空间分布格局及其时间变化趋势并分析了其时空变化与气温和降水量的关系。研究表明1981—2000年流域内植被NPP的空间分布大致呈现自西向东、自北向南递增的趋势。未来长江流域气温将整体增加,但各地增温幅度不同。流域降水量有增有减,主要增加区域位于长江源头和上游及中游的江北地区。未来在气温增加幅度较小而降水量增加的区域,如长江源头和上游的青海、西藏、川西及云南的部分地区的植被NPP将增加。在气温增幅较大而降水量减少或者降水量增加不多的区域如长江中游和下游的广大地区植被NPP将减少。从植被类型来看,长江流域大部分森林、郁闭灌丛和农作物的NPP在B2气候变化情景下将减少,每年减少量分别在0~4.5 gC.m-2、0~2 gC.m-2和0~2.5 gC.m-2之间。高寒草甸、草地和稀疏灌丛的NPP将增加,每年增长量介于0~2 gC.m-2之间。     

Plant species in arable field margins and road verges of central Norway

Plant species composition and species number were studied in two types of field margins: 31 arable field margins and 33 road verges. Both field margin types were adjacent to intensively managed grass or cereal fields. Effects of eight variables on field margin vegetation were studied. Despite having many plant species in common, composition and species number differed between the two field margin types, due to different ecological conditions and margin management. Arable field margins were composed of tall and/or nutrient demanding ubiquitous species and were characterised by species of later successional stages than those of road verges. The vegetation of road verges was lower and species numbers were higher than in arable field margins. The road verges contained several semi-natural meadow species that are declining in abundance. A CCA ordination of the field margins and the recorded variables showed that plant species composition was significantly affected by thickness of litter, slope, width, moisture level and type of crop in the adjacent field. Number of plant species was significantly higher in mown than unmown margins and generally higher in margins adjacent to fields with mainly grass production than in margins adjacent to fields with mainly cereal crops. In order to preserve botanical diversity in this agricultural landscape, the maintenance of regularly mown road verges should be prioritized.     

Landscape ecological analysis of urban vegetation in Guangzhou, China

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最近15年来中国气候变化、农业自然灾害与粮食生产的初步研究

本文分析了最近１５ａ来中国气候变化在最近５０ａ来的比较特征,并着重分析与讨论了这一期间气候变化、农业自然灾害与粮食生产的关系。结果表明：降水变化是影响中国粮食生产变化的主要原因,温度变化对粮食生产的影响主要表现在高纬度地区和高海拔地区；因气候变化影响粮食产量的变化幅度一般为３％～５％,个别年份可达１０％左右；因农业自然灾害造成的粮食减产幅度一般在５％～１０％,个别可达１０％左右。     

黑岱沟露天煤矿复垦土地野生植物侵入规律及对生态系统的影响

以黄土高原区露天煤矿复垦地为对象,于2005年8月对准格尔旗黑岱沟露天煤矿1992-2005年复垦的364hm2排土场野生植物入侵的种类进行了调查与研究,分析了42个样地上不同野生植物侵入的多度、频度、侵入规律及对生态系统的影响.结果表明:1992-2005年的近15年中,共有115种野生植物自然侵入到排土场内,群落中以1年生植物占优势(＞50%),但多年生植物已比复垦初期(＜5%)增加了很多,在组成上约占总种数的40%～50%,多度高的植物已有多年生植物,且分布于植物群落中.影响复垦植被生长的主要侵入种是披碱草和拂子茅.复垦地野生杂草侵入,表现为①平台侵入种数＞边坡侵入种数,阴坡侵入种数＞阳坡侵入种数;②纯林侵入种数＞混交林侵入种数;③沙棘灌丛侵入种数＞油松侵入种数＞杨树林侵入种数;④黄土覆盖区侵入种数＞土石混排区侵入种数.      

Soil emissions of NO, N2O and CO2 from croplands in the savanna region of central Brazil

In the last 40 years, a large area of savanna vegetation in Central Brazil (Cerrado) has been converted to agriculture, with intensive use of fertilizers, irrigation and management practices. Currently, the Cerrado is the main region for beef and grain production in Brazil. However, the consequences of these agricultural practices on NO, N₂O and CO₂ emissions from soil to atmosphere are still poorly investigated. The objectives of this study were to quantify soil emissions of NO-N, N₂O-N and CO₂-C in different no-till cultivation systems in comparison with native savanna vegetation. The agricultural areas included: (a) the maize and Brachiaria ruzizienses intercropping system followed by irrigated bean in rotation; (b) soybean followed by natural fallow; and (c) cotton planting over B. ruzizienses straw. The study was performed from August 2003 to October 2005 and fluxes were measured before and after planting, after fertilizations, during the growing season, before and after harvesting. NO-N fluxes in the soybean field were similar to those measured in the native vegetation. In the cornfield, higher NO-N fluxes were measured before planting than after planting and pulses were observed after broadcast fertilizations. During Brachiaria cultivation NO-N fluxes were lower than in native vegetation. In the irrigated area (bean cultivation), NO-N fluxes were also significantly higher after broadcast fertilizations. Most of the soil N₂O-N fluxes measured under cultivated and native vegetation were very low (<0.6 ng N₂O-N cm⁻² h⁻¹) except during bean cultivation when N₂O-N fluxes increased after the first and second broadcast fertilization with irrigation and during nodule senescence in the soybean field. Soil respiration values from the soybean field were similar to those in native vegetation. The CO₂-C fluxes during cultivation of maize and irrigated bean were twice as high as in the native vegetation. During bean cultivation with irrigation, an increase in CO₂-C fluxes was observed after broadcast fertilization followed by a decrease after the harvest. Significantly lower soil C stocks (0-30 cm depth) were determined under no-tillage agricultural systems in comparison with the stocks under savanna vegetation. Fertilizer-induced emission factors of N oxides calculated from the data were lower than those indicated by the IPCC as default.     

近40a来中国喜马拉雅山不同流域冰湖演化特征

基于1970年代、1990、2000、2010年4个时相的冰湖编目数据,分析近40 a来中国喜马拉雅山区不同时段、不同流域和不同海拔冰湖的变化特征。近40 a来中国喜马拉雅山区冰湖变化总体呈现"数量弱减少、面积持续显著增大"的趋势,平均数量减少0.3%,面积增加53.1%±11.5%,但冰湖变化年代际差异明显。西部流域冰湖面积增速明显快于东部流域,由西至东,平均以线性递减率为2.4%/(°)的趋势减少。不同海拔高度的冰湖面积呈扩张态势,76.7%的流域冰湖面积年净增率在不同高度带上呈现出"单峰型"增长模式,其他流域呈"双峰型"甚至"多峰型"扩张模式,体现不同高程上冰湖扩张的复杂性与气候变化的垂直差异性。     

喀斯特地区植被恢复下土壤活性有机碳与碳库管理指数的演变特征

植被恢复通过改变碳输入和转化速率,影响陆地生态系统的碳循环.为探明喀斯特地区植被恢复过程中土壤活性有机碳组分与碳库管理指数的演变特征,以喀斯特地区草地序列（5、10、15和20 a）、灌木序列（5、10、15和20 a）和园地序列（5、10和15 a）土壤为研究对象,以相邻农田为对照（CK）,分析了不同植被恢复年限对土壤有机碳（SOC）、易氧化有机碳（ROC₃₃₃、ROC₁₆₇和ROC₃₃,即能被333、167和33 mmol·L^-1 KMnO₄氧化的土壤活性有机碳）、微生物量碳（MBC）、溶解性有机碳（DOC）及碳库管理指数（CPMI）演变的影响.结果表明,与CK相比,0~40 cm土层草地、灌木和园地序列平均SOC含量分别增加了70.77%、114.40%和50.17%.在0~20 cm土层,随恢复年限增加,草地序列和园地序列的SOC含量呈先升后降势态,灌木序列呈先升后降再升势态,ROC₃₃₃、ROC₁₆₇和ROC₃₃与对应序列的SOC变化势态一致;在20~40 cm土层,各序列的ROC₃₃₃、ROC₁₆₇和ROC₃₃与对应序列的SOC的变化势态不一致.在0~40 cm土层,草地序列MBC含量呈先降后升再降势态,各土层MBC最大值均在G15;灌木序列在0~10 cm土层为先升后降再升势态,在10~40 cm土层为先升后降势态;园地序列在0~30 cm土层为先升后降势态,在30~40 cm土层为逐渐升高势态.3个序列K_os大致呈先降后升再降势态,L和LI与K_os相反;CPI呈先升后降势态;草地和园地序列的碳库管理指数（CPMI）呈先升后降势态,而灌木序列CPMI的则呈先升后降再升势态.SOC、ROC₃₃₃、ROC₁₆₇、ROC₃₃和MBC含量及K_os的年增长量大小为：灌木>草地>园地,DOC和CPMI的年增长量大小为：园地>草地>灌木.3个序列SOC及其组分含量均总体随土层增加而降低,具有明显的表聚性.冗余分析结果显示碱解氮（AN）是影响喀斯特地区植被恢复下土壤活性有机碳组分和土壤有机碳库的主要环境因子.综上,土壤活性有机碳组分和CPMI随植被恢复时间发生演变,不同植被恢复均能一定程度地提高喀斯特地区SOC及其组分含量,灌木恢复促进SOC的积累.     

遥感资料在青海草地资源监测及评价中的应用研究

利用EOS/MODIS、NOAA/AVHRR卫星遥感监测的植被指数(NDVI)、地面定点监测的实际地上牧草产量资料,依据卫星遥感监测原理,在点和面上研究、建立了植被指数与牧草产量之间的关系模式,给出了草地资源卫星遥感监测和评价方法。监测和评价结果显示:2004年青海省草地资源从东南部向西北部逐渐递减,产量最高区处于黄南州南部和果洛州东南部,最低区处于西北部的柴达木盆地,近20年来天然草地资源的分布规律没有发生变化,但草地生产力在逐步下降,草地资源在逐年减少,仅果洛州全州平均牧草产量比1986年下降了4.04%,牧草总量减少85.10×104t,理论载畜量减少了63.11×104只绵羊单位;暖干旱化的气候变化趋势是造成青海省天然草地生产力下降、呈现退化趋势的主要原因。