An inexpensive depth gauge for marine animals

Current models of time-at-depth gauges are so expensive that few can be deployed and only limited data obtained. We describe an inexpensive depth gauge for use on marine animals, which we tested on diving birds. The device was constructed from components costing $2 (US); and had a mass of 6 g. The gauge employs photographic film to record the depth-dependent position of a light emitting diode. The total time that the animal spends at each depth underwater can be determined.     

Biological effects of surface active agents on marine animals

The biological effects of 5 surface active agents (the anionic ABS, LAS and LES 3 EO and the nonionic NP 10 EO and TAE 10 EO) on marine fishes, crustaceans and bivalves have been tested in, continuous-flow systems. Concentrations from 100 to 0.5 ppm were normally used. Fishes were found to be more susceptible (96 hLC 50 range: 0.8 to 6.5 ppm) than bivalves (96 hLC50 range: 5 to >100 ppm) while crustaceans were considerably more resistant (96 h LC 50 range: 25 to > 100 ppm). Within each of these 3 systematic groups, more active species were found to be more sensitive than less active species. Developmental stages were also more sensitive than adults. The resistance of crustaceans to surfactants decreases immediately after moulting. The most toxic agent for fishes and decapods was the soft anionic LAS, and for bivalves and barnacles the hard nonionic NP 10 EO. Ability to recover normal behaviour after exposure decreases with increasing concentration and time, and ceases earlier in anionic than in nonionic surfactants. The first reaction to the surfactants is increased activity (avoidance reaction of mobile species), followed successively by inactivation, immobilization and death. Nonionic surfactants affect the equilibrium in fishes. Sublethal effects appear as impaired locomotory activity and breathing rate in fishes and crustaceans, impaired byssus activity and shell closure in Mytilus edulis, burrowing in Cardium edule, Astarte montagui and Astarte sulcata. Siphon retraction is affected in Mya arenaria and Cardium edule, as is also the response to food of the Leander spp.     

Spatially stochastic settlement and the coexistence of benthic marine animals

For sessile organisms, dispersal and recruitment are typically spatially stochastic, but there is little understanding of how this variability scales up to influence processes such as competitive coexistence. Here we argue that coexistence of benthic marine animals is enhanced by stochastic differences between species in the spatial distribution of larval settlement. Differentiation of settlement distributions among competitors results in intraspecifically aggregated settlement, which can reduce overall interspecific competition and increase overall intraspecific competition. We test for the components of this mechanism using a pair of subtidal invertebrates, and we find that the mean interspecific effect of the dominant competitor is substantially reduced by natural settlement variability. Using a simulation parameterized with experimental data, we find that variable settlement could play an important role in long-term coexistence between these species. This mechanism may apply broadly to benthic marine communities, which can be highly diverse and typically exhibit large settlement fluctuation over a range of scales.     

The ecological principle of evolutionary reconstruction as illustrated by marine animals

Analysis of the evolution, distribution and ecology of marine prosobranchs of the genera Neptunea and Littorina and amphipods of the genera Anisogammarus and Gammarus demonstrates the possibilities of ecological and palacoecological methods in composing evolutionary reconstructions. A comparative study of historical climate changes and of palaeogeography in areas inhabited by certain taxonomic groups, coupled with information on the distribution and ecology of species belonging to these groups, allows us to determine the time and locality of the origin of diverse biogeographical groups of species and to trace the routes of their further distribution, even in those organisms which have no fossil remains. Species dwelling under conditions which correspond historically to the most ancient climate of their dwelling area prove to be more primitive than species dwelling under newly-formed climatic conditions. For instance, subtropical species of the genera under consideration, in the Northwestern parts of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, have proved to be more ancient and primitive than species inhabiting the upper boreal Pacific and Atlantic waters and the Arctic Ocean. Therefore, the palaeoecological analysis of the historical development of faunas from different regions of the globe, combined with the application of the morphological principle, can significantly contribute to a more detailed and precise understanding of the processes and trends of evolution which compose the phylogenetic schemes of the taxonomic groups under discussion.     

Activity of marine psychrophilic bacteria at elevated hydrostatic pressures and low temperatures

Uptake and metabolic turnover of a variety of radioactively labeled substrates by a number of bacterial isolates from several depths in offshore Atlantic waters were studied in laboratory experiments. The variable conditions were hydrostatic pressure (1 to 400 atm), temperature (1.50 to 15.0°C), concentration of substrate (2 to 500 g/ml), and time of incubation (4 h to 8 weeks). Elevated hydrostatic pressure and low temperature retarded the rate of metabolism (biosynthesis more than respiration) in all isolates tested, but considerably less in those of psychrophilic character.Contribution No. 2944 of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.Supported by the National Foundation Grants GA-33405 and GA-29665.     

Accumulation and release of petroleum-derived aromatic hydrocarbons by four species of marine animals

Survival of Ctenodiscus crispatus during exposure to hypoxia (P _{O 2}<3 mm Hg) at 5°C is greater than that of any echinoderm reported in the literature, the LT₅₀ being 248 h; this is reduced to 236 h in the presence of hydrogen sulfide. Unlike Asterias vulgaris and A. forbesi, both of which lose the tube foot response to tactile stimulation long before death from hypoxia occurs, C. crispatus remains responsive until death. The extension of the highly protrusible epiproctal cone, which occurs in 75% of the mud stars simultaneously exposed to hypoxia and H₂S, serves to maintain burrow contact with the overlying water. The rate of oxygen consumption remains constant down to an ambient oxygen partial pressure of 10 to 25 mm Hg, becoming more oxygen-dependent after prior exposure of the asteroids to hypoxia. C. crispatus exhibits a clear oxygen-debt phenomenon as well as a compensatory reduction in the residual P _{O 2} (oxygen partial pressure at which oxygen consumption ceases) from 2.4 to 0.2 mm Hg after hypoxic exposure.     

Environmental correlates of large-scale spatial variation in the δ15N of marine animals

Marine Biology - Nitrogen stable isotopes can be used to estimate the trophic position of consumers in food webs. However, the nitrogen stable isotope ratios (δ15N) of primary producers at the...     

An improved method for the measurement of CO2 in marine animals,applied to three species of decapods

Previous methods for measuring CO₂ respired in sea water were inaccurate bacause of the high concentration of bound CO₂ (carbonates). The method developed here “refluxes” a fixed volume of air through a fixed volume of sea water while simultaneously trapping the respired CO₂. Tests were run long enough for the volume of respired CO₂ to approximately equal the CO₂ bound in the water, thus decreasing the former cause of inaccuracies. The method was tested with 3 species of crabs: Maia aquinado, Carcinus meanas, and Cancer pagurus. Tests lasted overnight (20 h). Six respirometers were used, 5 containing crabs and 1 control for the measurement of bound CO₂. The volume of respired CO₂ was given by the weight of trapped CO₂ (as BaCO₃) from the test units (the total of respired CO₂ and that in the test water) minus the weight of the control CO₂. In both fed and starved crabs, of all 3 species, CO₂ output followed the average trend of oxygen consumption, especially after feeding when both CO₂ and O₂ rose sharply. RQ's (respiratory quotients) could not be determined because O₂ was measured intermittently, but the relative ratio of CO₂ and O₂ was essentially unchanged throughout the experiments. In general, CO₂ was less variable than O₂ and may be a better indicator of average metabolic rate.     

Cellular resistance adaptation to temperature and thermostability of somatic cells with special reference to marine animals

A survey of literature is given with respect to two problems: (1) resistance temperature adaptation in protozoans and multicellular animals at early stages of ontogenesis (cellular adaptations), and (2) changes in thermostability of somatic cells related to temperature adaptations of multicellular organisms. The following aspects are considered and discussed in detail: changes in resistance of protozoans to cold and heat, their causes and genetic controls; possible mechanisms of changes in thermostability of gametes, zygotes and multicellular organisms at oligolcellular stages of development; mechanisms of heat injury to cells; types of changes in heat-resistance of somatic cells from multi-cellular animals during individual life and during phylogenesis. The object of the review is to emphasize those aspects of temperature resistance adaptation of animals which have scarcely been investigated.     

Heavy metal accumulation in certain marine animals along the East Coast of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Heavy metals disposed through anthropogenic activities find their way into the oceans and seas through the rivers or through direct fall out from factory effluents. These heavy metals resuspend back into the water column along with the sediments and are known to affect the marine animals. Marine animals like fish, prawn, crab and mussel were collected along the East Coast (off Pulicat lake to Chennai Harbour) to evaluate trace metal concentrations in various tissues. The above specimens accumulated heavy metals such as Zn, Pb, Cu, Co, Cr, Ni and Cd. Fish, prawn, crab and mussel revealed higher concentration of heavy metals such as Zn, Pb, Cr Co, Cu and Ni and Cd in low levels. The results revealed that the heavy metal concentrations in the marine animals are below the threshold levels associated with the toxicological effects and the regulatory limits. The bioconcentration factors revealed that the animals have accumulated heavy metals along the food chain rather than from the water column and sediment.     

Morphological study of marine bacterial capsules: implications for marine aggregates

The morphological variation in bacterial capsules found in suspended and sinking particles from the open ocean is examined. The capsules consist of matrices of mucopolysaccharides that remain attached to and extend the cell surface. Transmission electron microscope images of several distinct and recurring morphs are presented. Capsule abundance relative to total numbers of bacteria is significantly higher in sinking particles (up to 80% of total bacteria present) than in fine suspended particles (up to 20%). Discrete fecal pellets and minipellets are inadequate sources of the capsules captured by sediment traps. Alternatively, the data and previous observations indicate that the bacterial capsules are removed from the fine suspended-particle phase in association with macroaggregates, or marine snow. The combined properties of the bacterial capsules with their extensive open matrices of attached sticky polymers suggest a high aggregation efficiency.     

Lethal levels of hypoxia for gulf coast estuarine animals

There is increasing concern about eutrophication and subsequent hypoxia problems in estuaries. The US Environmental Protection Agency has developed Water Quality Criteria (WQC) for dissolved oxygen (DO) in saltwater for Cape Cod, MA to Cape Hatteras, NC but inadequate data exists for development of such criteria for other coastal geographic areas. We performed acute tests with two species of crustaceans and seven species of estuarine fishes native to the Gulf of Mexico to complement the data base for northeastern species. Flow-through tests were conducted for either 24- or 48-h at test temperatures from 24 to 28°C and at salinities from 20 to 31.5‰. Estimated 24-h LC50 values obtained for crustaceans ranged from 1.36 mg/l for adult pink shrimp to 1.56 mg/l for 10-day-old mysids. Similarly, estimated LC50 values for fish ranged from 1.34 mg/l in one of the three tests with pinfish to 2.22 mg/l in one of the two tests with scaled sardines. The majority of mortality attributable to low DO concentrations in our experiments usually occurred within the first 4 h of exposure. LC50 values for the species tested are below the WQC recommended protective limit of 2.3 mg/l for juvenile and adult animals.     

A novel method for quantifying the glossiness of animals

The glossy sheen of healthy hair is an ideal of human beauty; however, glossiness has never been quantified in the context of non-human animal signaling. Glossiness, the specular reflectance characteristic of polished surfaces, has the potential to act as a signal of quality because it depends upon material integrity and cleanliness. Here, we undertook two studies of glossiness in avian plumage to determine (a) the repeatability of a recently developed measure of glossiness, (b) the relationship between glossiness and conventional measures of coloration, and (c) how glossiness is associated with quality signaling. Using museum specimens of three North American bird species with glossy plumage (red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus; great-tailed grackle, Quiscalus mexicanus; Chihuahuan raven, Corvus cryptoleucus), we found that the glossiness measure was highly repeatable for all species and was significantly correlated with plumage coloration (e.g., chroma, brightness) in male great-tailed grackles. We then used wild-caught grackles to examine sexual dimorphism in plumage glossiness and its correlation to a potentially sexually selected trait in this species, male tail length. We found that males were significantly glossier than females and that male, but not female, glossiness correlated positively with tail length. This study provides a repeatable method to measure glossiness and highlights its potential as a signal of individual quality in animals.     

Critical factors for the recovery of marine mammals

{en} Over the past decades, much research has focused on understanding the critical factors for marine extinctions with the aim of preventing further species losses in the oceans. Although conservation and management strategies are enabling several species and populations to recover, others remain at low abundance levels or continue to decline. To understand these discrepancies, we used a published database on abundance trends of 137 populations of marine mammals worldwide and compiled data on 28 potentially critical factors for recovery. We then applied random forests and additive mixed models to determine which intrinsic and extrinsic factors are critical for the recovery of marine mammals. A mix of life‐history characteristics, ecological traits, phylogenetic relatedness, population size, geographic range, human impacts, and management efforts explained why populations recovered or not. Consistently, species with lower age at maturity and intermediate habitat area were more likely to recover, which is consistent with life‐history and ecological theory. Body size, trophic level, social interactions, dominant habitat, ocean basin, and habitat disturbance also explained some differences in recovery patterns. Overall, a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic factors were important for species’ recovery, pointing to cumulative effects. Our results provide insight for improving conservation and management strategies to enhance recoveries in the future.     

A model algorithm for defining the vertical profile of absolute humidity by ground measurements of humidity

In this study a double model algorithm is developed for the simulation of the vertical profiles of monthly values of absolute humidity. The thrust of the algorithm is that is depends on the use of ground measurements for humidity and is based upon the use of two model relations for altitudes above and below 1 Km respectively. Monthly absolute humidity profiles as estimated using the specially constructed double model algorithm compare well with those calculated with the use of radiosonde data for the time period 1980–1990 (Helliniko station, Southern Greece). In particular the model estimation is very satisfactory at altitudes above the Planetary Boundary Layer and rather satisfying at altitudes below 1 Km. This implies that the model algorithm may be useful in supporting climatological studies in areas where lack of relevant information on the vertical distribution of water vapour is recognised.     

Direct estimation of natural mortality rates for littoral marine fishes using populational data from a marine reserve

 Visual censuses conducted in a marine reserve (Medas Islands) were used to estimate the natural mortality rates (M) for five common fish species in the NW Mediterranean Sea (Coris julis, Diplodus annularis, D. sargus, Serranus cabrilla and Symphodus roissali). Visual censuses of these same five species were also performed at three sites in unprotected areas of the coast where both commercial and sport fishing activity was normal. Censuses were conducted over a 3 year period. Estimates of M in the 3 years displayed scant seasonal or interannual variation, which may mean that the populations were in equilibrium during that period. The results of this study showed that the relationships between M and the growth parameters and maximum life span were unclear, and considerable caution is therefore recommended when using indirect methods of estimating M based on those parameters. For certain species the values of M were equal to or greater than the estimated total mortality in the exploited areas. The virtual absence of piscivorous predators in the unprotected area as a consequence of the high level of fishing in that area contrasts with the high abundance of such predators in the marine reserve. Since predation is the main contributor to M, estimated mortality in the unprotected areas is attributable nearly entirely to fishing. It is suggested that M may vary according to alterations taking place in conditions in the ecosystem inhabited by a species and thus that use of a value of M for a pristine population cannot be extrapolated to exploited areas. Received: 18 January 2000 / Accepted: 14 July 2000     

An observational pressure vessel for studying the behaviour of planktonic animals

A design for a pressure vessel, suitable for continuous observation of small planktonic animals at moderate hydrostatic pressures is presented. The long side windows are 3/4 inch (ca. 19 mm) armourplate glass, and smaller windows are provided at each end. The dimensions of the inner working chamber are approximately 16 × 2 × 1 3/4 inches (ca. 0.41×0.05×0.045 m). Internal pressures up to 800 psi (55 bar) have been used successfully during testing. The entire apparatus is placed in a water jacket to provide precise temperature regulation.     

Economic valuation of marsh areas for marine production processes

The relationship of natural marsh-estuarine systems to the economic productivity of marine systems is not well understood, at least in any quantitative sense. An approach is developed for relating blue crab economic productivity on Florida's Gulf Coast to marsh availability in the area. Previous efforts have not always applied economic concepts appropriately in attempts at such quantification. The marginal value productivity of marsh is shown to vary with alternative levels of marsh and effort in the fishery. The interaction and subsequent interdependence is shown to be statistically significant. Data availability on marginal response to marsh changes poses a severe obstacle to further progress.     

A new growth model for fishes and the estimation of optimum age of fish populations

Evidence is presented that a simple power equation of the formX _t –X _m =±b(|tࢤt _m|)^B can describe growth in length and weight of fishes, whereX _t denotes fish length or weight at aget, X _m is length or weight (L _m orW _m ) at a reference aget _m , andb andB are parameters to be estimated by the least squares. The optimum age of fish populations (t _y ) may be estimated by the equationMW _m /b=±y ^B (B/y-M) whereM denotes natural mortality and wherey=t _y -t _m .     

Improved estimates of certainty in stable-isotope-based methods for tracking migratory animals.

The use of stable-hydrogen isotopes (deltaD) has become a common tool for estimating geographic patterns of movement in migratory animals. This method relies on broad and relatively predictable geographic patterning in deltaD values of precipitation, but these patterns are not estimated without error. In addition, deltaD measurements are relatively imprecise, particularly for organic tissue. Most models for estimating geographic locations have ignored these sources of error. Common modeling approaches include regression, range-matching, and likelihood-based assignment tests (including discriminant analysis). Here, we show the benefits of a simple stochastic extension to likelihood-based assignment tests that incorporates two estimable sources of error and describe the resulting influence on the certainty of assigning breeding origins for wintering American Redstarts (Setophaga ruticilla), a small Nearctic-Neotropical migratory bird. Through simulation, we incorporated both spatial interpolation error associated with models of deltaD in precipitation and analytical error associated with the measurement of deltaD in tissue samples. In general, assignments that did not include these sources of error fell within the ranges of the stochastic results, but the difference in proportion of birds assigned to any one breeding region varied by as much as 54%. To explore how the distribution of assignments generated from error models influenced the application of these results, we developed a simple model of winter habitat loss. We removed the proportion of Redstarts wintering at a particular site from the global population and then used the isotope-based assignments to predict the resulting population declines for each breeding region. This gave distributions of change in population sizes, some of which included no change or even a population increase. The sources of error we modeled may challenge the degree of certainty in the use of stable-isotope-based data on connectivity to predict population dynamics of migratory animals. We suggest that stronger inference will result from incorporating these sources of error into future studies that use deltaD or other stable isotopes to infer the geographic origin of individuals.