Effects of mercury on the behaviour and oxygen consumption of Monodonta articulata

The trochid snail Monodonta articulata Lamarck was exposed to mercuric sulphate at concentrations of 0.2, 0.5, 0.8 and 1 ppm Hg⁺⁺. At 24 h, retraction into the shell was observed in 0.8 and 1 ppm Hg⁺⁺; this retraction increased in these concentrations at 36 h. Retracted snails died if retained in the solutions, but generally recovered within 24 to 48 h if transferred to uncontaminated sea water. Immersionemersion behaviour and interface activity were studied over 24 h by means of an aktograph; snails in normal sea water spent more time below than above the water surface, and exhibited frequent periods of activity. Exposure to mercuric sulphate at concentration of 0.25, 0.5, 0.8 and 1 ppm Hg⁺⁺ progressively reduced both the length and frequency of activity periods. From 0.5 ppm Hg⁺⁺ upwards, emersion periods increased, and immersion periods decreased. Oxygen consumption of snails was measured in sea water and in mercuric sulphate at concentrations of 0.2, 0.5, 0.8 and 1 ppm Hg⁺⁺. Oxygen consumption decreased significantly with each progressive rise in mercury concentration. It is considered that mercury affects M. articulata by interfering with respiration, initially reducing interface activity, then forcing the snail for longer and longer periods out of the water. Retraction occurs when activity is no longer possible. It is concluded that respiratory and behavioural alterations of this nature would afford a good indicator of the presence of sub-lethal concentrations of pollutants.     

Bioaccumulation and toxic effects of copper on growth and oxygen consumption by the postlarvae of Penaeus indicus

The aim of this study was to assess the toxic impact of copper on postlarvae (PL) of the penaeid shrimp Penaeus indicus. Tolerance, growth, oxygen consumption and metal accumulation were investigated in these PL on exposure to copper. Tolerance studies were conducted for 96 h to assess the tolerance limits of P. indicus PL exposed to different concentrations of copper using static renewal bioassay tests. Using the Probit method, the regression equation was calculated as Y=0.4899+2.3562 X, with a correlation coefficient of 0.9707. The 96 h LC₅₀ was 0.8204 ppm. The effect of sublethal (one-fifth of 96 h LC₅₀) copper on PL for short- and long-term exposures revealed a significant (p<0.05) decrease in the rate of oxygen consumption, metabolic rate, mean length, wet and dry weight of the exposed PL over their respective controls which can be attributed to a gradual and time-dependent accumulation of the metal, as noticed in the exposed PL through accumulation studies. Overall, the data suggest that on chronic exposure even sublethal concentrations of copper can reduce the metabolic rate and growth in P. indicus PL. This is perhaps the first attempt to use the wild P. indicus PL as a bioindicator of copper toxicity.     

Effects of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate on hemoglobin content and oxygen consumption of freshwater fish, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus)

Lethal effects of nitrogenous compounds ammonia, nitrite and nitrate on freshwater fish Cyprinus carpio were studied and the static LC50 values obtained for these 3 toxicants for 24 hr were 0.80 ppb, 171.36 ppm; 1075.10 ppm and continuous flowthrough LC50 values for 24 hr were 0.72 ppb, 154.31 ppm; 967.63 ppm respectively. The fish were exposed to lethal concentrations to study the changes in hematological parameters and the rate of oxygen consumption. During the period of exposure general decline in the content of hemoglobin was observed. Methemoglobin content increased in case of nitrite exposure consequently the hemoglobin levels decreased drastically. It is also observed that rate of oxygen consumption decreased progressively with the increase of toxicant concentration and duration of the exposure.     

Degradation and acute toxicity of Methidathion and Trichlorfon on Procambarus clarkii,in experimental conditions

Routine applications of organophosphate pesticides may adversely affect many nontarget organisms. Static toxicities in mature crayfish Procambarus clarkii were determined, in laboratory, for two organophosphate insecticides using 24, 48, 72 and 96‐h static tests. Three groups of 10 crayfish were exposed to 0.75 to 6 ppm for Trichlorfon and 0.2 to 0.9 ppm for Methidathion. The 24 to 96‐h LC50 values for Trichlorfon and Methidathion were from 5.14–0.99 ppm and 0.73–0.28 ppm respectively. Studies of degradation of Methidathion and Trichlorfon have been made using 1 ppm for Methidathion and 0.1 ppm for Trichlorfon. Both insecticides were degradated gradually until 96‐h. Results show that Methidathion is more toxic to P. clarkii in our medium and degradation of both pesticides is similar.     

Studies on factors affecting survival of nile fish in the Sudan. I. The effect of hydrogen ion concentration

Young of Tilapia nilotica L. were subjected to acidic and alkaline media of different pH over 24 h periods. Dilute hydrochloric acid was used to lower the hydrogen ion concentration of the test medium. A pH lower than 2.9 resulted in immediate mortality, whereas a pH of 3.5 and above produced no mortality. Alkaline media had no serious effect on survival.     

In vitro and in vivo inhibition of Ca2+-Mg2+-ATPase activity by cadmium in post larvae of Penaeus monodon

Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-ATPase is a membrane-bound enzyme and is responsible for regulating cytosolic free calcium. In vitro and in vivo effects of cadmium were studied on Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-ATPase activity in plasma membrane/mitochondrial fraction of Penaeus monodon post larvae. In vitro studies revealed a concentration-dependent decrease in enzyme activity with an IC₅₀ value of 11.02?µM. In vivo experiments were conducted by exposing the post larvae to 1/10th (0.12?ppm) and 1/5th (0.24?ppm) of LC₅₀ values of cadmium for 30 days. Both ATPase activity and metal accumulation were estimated in post larvae exposed to 0.12 and 0.24?ppm of cadmium at different intervals of 24?h, 48?h, 96?h, 10 days and 30 days. ATPase activity showed a gradual decrease in post larvae on exposure to both the sub-lethal concentrations with respect to their controls and the decrease was significant (p?相似文献   

Modèle de détection rapide des effets sublétaux des polluants: Modification des taux d'amylase et de trypsine d'Artemia salina contaminées par le cuivre ou le zinc

Variations in amylase and trypsin activities were studied in Artemia salina L. exposed to concentrations of copper or zinc which impair their growth. Disturbances in the levels of these enzymes were compared with decreases in growth rate. Amylase activity was disturbed within 24 h by 2 ppm copper and within 72 h by 5 ppm zinc. Inversely, trypsin activity was disturbed within 24 h by 5 ppm zinc and within 72 h by 2 ppm copper. Disturbances at the enzymatic level occurred more rapidly than decreases in growth rate, except for trypsin in A. salina polluted by copper. In the latter case, both were affected simultaneously. The possibility of growth disturbance by modified development of digestive enzymes is discussed. The possible use of enzymatic variation for rapid detection of sublethal effects of pollutants on aquatic organisms in situ is suggested. However, suitable controls would be necessary. Either polluted and unpolluted areas could be compared if their natural ecology were already well known, or reference areas could be monitored before pollutants are introduced.

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Modèle de détection rapide des effets sublétaux des polluants: Modification des taux d'amylase et de trypsine d'Artemia salina contaminées par le cuivre ou le zinc

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Contribution no. 623 du Département Scientifique du Centre Océanologique de Bretagne.     

The effect of copper and zinc on the metabolism of the mussel Mytilus edulis

The effects of copper and zinc on the metabolism of the mussel Mytilus edulis (L.) and its component tissues were studied. 500 ppm copper sodium citrate inhibited oxygen consumption of the whole animal and gill tissue, but no similar effect was observed on digestive gland tissue. 500 ppm zinc sodium citrate exerted no effect upon gill or digestive gland respiration, and neither metal salt affected the respiration of homogenates of gill, digestive gland or gonad. Direct observation of gill tissues during exposure to the metals revealed that 500 ppm copper sodium citrate caused inhibition of ciliary activity; exposure of tissues to 2 ppm Cu for 24 h resulted in only partial inhibition of the cilía. It is suggested that metabolic suppression noted in whole animals and gill tissues is due to the inhibition of an energy-consuming process such as ciliary activity rather than interference with respiratory enzyme systems.     

Respiratory quotient and ammonia excretion in Tilapia mossambica

Tilapia mossambica (Peters), acclimated to and tested in fresh water at 30°C, maintained a routine respiratory quotient (R Q) of about unity and an ammonia quotient (A Q) (Vol. NH₂/Vol. O₂) of about 0.2 at high ambient oxygen concentrations. At low oxygen concentrations (below 2 ppm) R Q and A Q increased sharply to values of 8 and 1, respectively (at 0.6 ppm), indicating a close relationship of increase in anaerobic energy utilization and increase in protein metabolism at inadequate oxygen concentrations. T. mossambica (8 cm), exercised continuously with intervening sampling and flushing stops for 6 h, at a swimming speed of about 2 body lengths/sec, derived some anaerobic energy throughout the exercise (R Q: 1.2), utilizing more protein the longer the exercise. The coupling of the increased protein metabolism and anaerobic energy utilization may be of advantage in preventing acidosis and also in conserving sodium (Na⁺) in fish.Part of this work was included in a paper presented at the Centennial Meeting of The American Fisheries Society, September 13–16, 1970, New York.     

Assessment of deposition of MEMC (seed dressing fungicide) in exposed rice grain through study of seedling growth parameters

Rice seed grains exposed to 240 ppm of seed dressing fungicide, MEMC showed increase in deposition of mercury with increase in period of observation (0h to 48h) in 765+/-5 mg of intact endosperm. The gradual increase in mercury deposition in intact endosperm caused simultaneous decrease in mercury content of the seed coat. Exposure periods of 5 to 20 min with 240 ppm of MEMC showed 5.5 to 8.72 microg of mercury deposition in 765+/-5 mg of intact endosperm. Increase in period of exposure (3 to 20 min) to 240 ppm of MEMC and also increase in chronic treatment to lower concentrations (1.5 ppm to 24 ppm) to seed grains have shown similar results in seedling growth parameters. Lower period of exposure or exposure to lower concentrations, both showed a significant inhibition of root growth, however the shoot growth showed stimulation. But higher exposure period or exposure to higher concentrations brought inhibition of both root and shoot growth. The exposure period showing 50% of root growth inhibition of 72h old seedling was calculated to be 10 min So also the chronic treatment showing the 50% of root growth inhibition was calculated to be 9 ppm. Ten min exposure of rice grain to 240 ppm of MEMC showed deposition of 7.11 microg of mercury in 765+/-5 mg of intact endosperm at 48h of observation (optimal phase of germinating process). Regression analysis indicated that by the time of 72h the intact endosperm and developing seedling might have acquired with a minimum amount of 10.23 microg of mercury from the seed coat. Finally it can be said that 10.23 microg of MEMC might be bringing 50% root growth inhibition in 72h old seedlings and 16.71 microg of mercury causing 50% inhibition of both root and shoot growth of 120h old seedlings.     

Behaviour and tolerance to hypoxia in juvenile Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus ) of different ages

The annual occurrence of hypoxia (<25% oxygen saturation) in the bottom waters along the Swedish west coast coincides with the postlarval settlement of Norway lobster, Nephrops norvegicus (L.). This study investigates behaviour and the experimental effects of low oxygen concentrations in juvenile N. norvegicus of different ages. All experimental individuals were reared to the juvenile (postlarval) stage in the laboratory and then given sediment as a substratum. Behavioural responses to low oxygen concentrations were tested in early and late Postlarvae 1 exposed to normoxia (>80% oxygen saturation, pO₂ > 16.7 kPa), moderate hypoxia (30% oxygen saturation, pO₂ = 6.3 kPa) and hypoxia (25% oxygen saturation, pO₂ = 5.2 kPa). The experiments were run for a maximum period of 24 h or until individuals died. Behaviour was studied using sequential video recordings of four behavioural activities: digging, walking, inactivity or flight (escape swimming up into the water column). Behaviour and mortality changed with lowered oxygen concentrations; energetically costly activities (such as walking) were reduced, and activity in general declined. In normoxia, juveniles initially walked and then burrowed, but when exposed to hypoxia they were mainly inactive with occasional outbursts of escape swimming. To increase oxygen availability the juveniles were observed to raise their bodies on stilted legs (similar to adults in hypoxic conditions), but oxygen saturations of 25% were lethal within 24 h. The results suggest that the main gas exchanges of early postlarval stages occur over the general body surface. Burrowing behaviour was tested in Postlarvae 1 and 2 of different ages held in >80% oxygen saturation for 1 wk. The difference in time taken to complete a V-shaped depression or a U-shaped burrow was measured. The results showed a strong negative relationship between postlarval age and burrowing time, but all individuals made a burrow. Juveniles were more sensitive to hypoxia than adults. Thus, the possible consequences of episodic hypoxia for the recruitment of Nephrops norvegicus and for the recolonization of severely affected areas are discussed. Received: 4 August 1996 / Accepted: 11 October 1996     

Effect of curacron toxicity on the total serum protein content of Cyprinus carpio

An experiment was conducted on freshwater fish Cyprinus carpio to study the effect of the pesticide curacron on total serum protein. Curacron is an organophosphate pesticide and used by the farmers to protect their crops. This pesticide reaches the aquatic ecosystem by direct or indirect means and affects aquatic fauna. LC50 for curacron for C. carpio was calculated by the log-dose/probit regression line method and found to be 0.38?ppm at 96?h. Three sub-lethal concentrations (0.1, 0.01, and 0.001?mL?L^?1) were selected to expose the fish for 1, 7, 14, and 21days. Changes in total serum protein were observed at all pesticide concentrations and exposure periods. Total serum protein was decreased from control. At 1 and 7 days, the decrease was quantitative at all concentrations, while at 14 and 21 days, the fall was significant at all concentrations. Hence, human population may be at risk by consuming these contaminated fish.     

Hatching and viability of copepod eggs at two stages of embryological development: anoxic/hypoxic effect

The effects of low oxygen concentrations on the hatching and viability of copepod eggs at two stages of embryological development were investigated. Fully developed eggs from Acartia tonsa (Dana) and Labidocera aestiva (Wheeler) collected between July and September 1991 at Turkey Point, Florida, USA, hatched at lower oxygen concentrations than newly spawned eggs given the same incubation periods. Since many of the newly spawned eggs subsequently hatched when exposed to normoxic conditions, it is likely that the exposure to low oxygen delayed embryonic development. At oxygen concentrations where no initial hatching occurred, the subsequent hatching success of fully developed eggs of A. tonsa was higher than that of newly spawned eggs, indicating that newly spawned eggs were more sensitive to low oxygen concentrations. No such difference was observed for the eggs of L. aestiva.     

Accumulation and release of fuel-oil-derived diaromatic hydrocarbons by the polychaete Neanthes arenaceodentata

Male and gravid female Neanthes arenaceodentata (Moore) (Polychaeta: Annelida) were experimentally exposed to a sublethal concentration of No. 2 fuel oil seawater extract for 24 h. Within 1 h both sexes had incorporated, in equal proportions, most of the diaromatic hydrocarbons (naphthalene, methylnaphthalenes) eventually accumulated. No net loss of accumulated naphthalenes was observed during the exposure period. When returned to hydrocarbon-free seawater, male worms slowly released naphthalenes down to undetectable (< 0.1 ppm) levels in 400 h (17 days). Gravid females retained essentially all of the originally accumulated naphthalenes for 3 weeks, at which time they released their eggs during fertilization, with subsequent dramatic decreases in naphthalenes content. Zygotes and trochophore larvae from exposed females contained 18 ppm naphthalenes, accounting for a majority of those amounts initially present in parent females. As trochophore larvae developed into 18-segment juveniles, naphthalenes concentrations dropped to near undetectable levels (0.4 ppm) in 21-day old juveniles (= 18-segment worms). When sampled at the next stage of development (32-segment worms) 5 days later (1050 h after exposure of gravid females), offspring were free of naphthalenes. Results suggest the importance of lipid-rich eggs in the accumulation and retention of diaromatic hydrocarbons by marine polychaetes.     

Effects of suspended sediments on egg production of the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa

The estuarine copepod Acartia tonsa was collected on several occasions between 4 April and 14 August 1985 from Terrebonne Bay, Louisiana (29°08N; 90°36W) and the effects in its diet of suspended sediments, collected from the same area, were measured at five different concentrations of sediment (100 to 1 000 ppm) and six phytoplankton concentrations (500 to 13 000 cells ml^-1 Thalassiosira weissflogii). Egg production rate was used as an index of diet quality. At low phytoplankton concentrations (500 cells ml^-1), and at intermediate phytoplankton concentrations (2 000 cells ml^-1) for previously starved copepods, egg production was reduced by up to 40% at a sediment concentration of 250 ppm and further reduced at higher sediment concentrations. At higher food concentrations (4 000 to 13 000 cells ml^-1), suspended sediment had no effect on egg production rates at sediment concentrations up to 500 ppm. Rates were reduced only at the highest sediment concentration of 1 000 ppm. Under most natural conditions, suspended sediment would not significantly affect egg production rates in A. tonsa.     

Behavioral response of fish larvae to low dissolved oxygen concentrations in a stratified water column

Density stratification and respiration lead to vertical gradients in dissolved oxygen in many aquatic habitats. The behavioral responses of fish larvae to low dissolved oxygen in a stratified water column were examined during 1990–1991 with the goal of understanding how vertical gradients in dissolved oxygen may directly affect the distribution and survival of fish larvae in Chesapeake Bay, USA. In addition, the effects of low oxygen on 24-h survival rates were tested so that results of behavior experiments could be interpreted in the context of risk to the larve. Naked goby [Gobiosoma bosc (Lacépède)] and bay anchovy [Anchoa mitchilli (Valenciennes)] larvae strongly avoided dissolved oxygen concentrations <1 mg 1^-1, which were lethal within 24 h at 25 to 27°C. In addition, naked goby larvae, whose behavior was tested at a wider range of dissolved oxygen concentrations, also showed a reduced preference for an oxygen concentration of 2 mg 1^-1, which leads to reduced survival during long-term exposures and to reduced feeding rates. There were no major differences in behavior or survival between the two species, or between the two age classes of naked gobies tested. Results suggest that behavioral responses to oxygen gradients will play a large role in producing marked vertical changes in abundance of feeding-stage larvae in Chesapeake Bay; mortality from direct exposure to low oxygen will likely be much less important in producing vertical patterns of larval abundance.     

Physiological,biochemical and growth responses of Azolla pinnata to chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin pesticides exposure: a comparative study

Cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos pesticide- (5, 15 and 30 ppm) induced effects on growth, metabolic and antioxidative behaviour of Azolla pinnata were analysed after 96 h of treatment. Growth of A. pinnata was increased by 72–76% over the initial mass under control condition. Further, the growth was decreased by 26 and 30% following treatment with 5 ppm of cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos, respectively, compared to control. Whereas, 30 ppm of pesticide treatment caused substantial decrease in biomass accumulation, even less than the initial mass. The Chlorophyll a content was declined at higher concentrations of chlorpyrifos, while carotenoids content increased significantly in the presence of both the pesticides. Photosynthetic rate showed declining trend with rising concentration of pesticides, while an increasing trend was noticed in the case of respiratory O₂ consumption. The oxidative biomarkers malondialdehyde, superoxide radicals and hydrogen peroxide increased with increasing concentration of both the pesticides. The activity of enzymatic antioxidants enzyme superoxide dismutase, glutathione-S-transferase and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) was enhanced with increasing concentrations of both the pesticides; however, a declining trend was noticed in the case of APX at 30 ppm chlorpyrifos treatment. The study concludes that chlorpyrifos appeared to be more toxic than cypermethrin; however, both the pesticides significantly reduced the growth performance.     

Effects of arsenic on survival and metabolism of Crangon crangon

Metabolic changes and toxic effects in Crangon crangon (collected during summer 1989 near Helsingør, Denmark and at Kulhuse in the Isefjord) were observed during exposure to different arsenate concentrations. Survival, respiration, and concentrations of hemolymph glucose, muscle glycogen andadenine nucleotides were measured. C. crangon was very tolerant of arsenate; survival was only affected at arsenate concentrations >25 ppm. Small individuals (0.2 to 0.29 g wet weight) were less tolerant than medium-sized and large individuals (0.5 to 0.59 g and 0.8 to 0.89 g wet weight), e.g. at 50 ppm the LT₅₀ for small individuals was 180 h compared to 343 h and 360 h in middle-sized and large individuals. The relation between size and toxicity is probably due to the change in surface/volume ratio. Under clean conditions the respiration of C. crangon showed a clear relation between routine MO₂ (O₂ in mlg^-1 h^-1) and wet weight (r²=0.89; P<0.001). During shortterm exposure to arsenate (10 and 50 ppm), the respiratory rates (MO₂) seemed to decrease in a size-dependent manner. The concentrations of blood glucose and muscle glycogen did not change in response to arsenate exposure. The concentrations of adenylate phosphates were high and constant throughout the experiments. C. crangon had maximal adenylate energy charge (AEC) values of ca. 0.8. No decrease in AEC due to the exposure to arsenate was observed.     

Tertiary-butyl acetate metabolism,toxicity, and human health considerations

Tertiary-butyl acetate (TBAC) (CAS No. 540-88-5) is an organic solvent with a potential for occupational and environmental exposure as a result of its use in industrial coatings, adhesives, inks, and degreasers. The objective of these studies was to extend the toxicological database upon which health hazard and risk assessments of TBAC can be made. The metabolism of TBAC was studied in rats exposed by inhalation for 6?h to concentrations of 100 or 1000?ppm. There was an evidence of partial saturation of TBAC absorption and metabolism at some concentration below 1000?ppm. Approximately 5% of the low dose and 26% of the high dose was expired without change within 12?h, while the retained material was rapidly metabolised and excreted, mostly in the urine, within 24?h. Very little radioactivity remained in the tissues after day 7. The metabolism of TBAC appears to follow two major routes: hydroxylation of the tertiary-butyl moiety to form 2-hydroxymethylisopropyl acetate and ester hydrolysis to form tertiary-butyl alcohol (TBA). A minor route involves oxidation of the acetate moiety. Based on the proportion of metabolites that can clearly be assigned to one or the other major pathway, hydroxylation of the tertiary-butyl moiety prevails at 100?ppm, while hydrolysis of the ester bond predominates at 1000?ppm.

Based on nose-only inhalation exposure of rats to TBAC for 6?h, the LC50 for males and females combined is approximately 4200?ppm. Clinical signs included exaggerated breathing, staggering, tremors, and lethargy approximately 1?h after the exposure, but all surviving rats appeared normal from 24?h until the end of the 14?day observation period. An LC₅₀ was not identified for mice. After exposure of whole body for 6?h to 3000?ppm, the highest concentration tested, all mice were prostrate for most of the exposure time, but there were no deaths.

Groups of five male and five female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed nose-only to 0, 100, 400, or 1600?ppm TBAC 6?h?day^?1 5 days?wk^?1 for 2?weeks. There were no effects on body weight, feed or water consumption, or necropsy findings. Male rats exposed to 1600?ppm had increased liver weights and hypertrophy of centrilobular hepatocytes. An increased proportion of cortical tubule cells with hyaline droplet accumulation was observed in all treated groups of males. Groups of five male and five female CD-1 mice were exposed whole body to 0, 190, 375, 750, or 1500?ppm TBAC 6?h?day^?1 for 14 consecutive days. There were no effects on body weight, feed consumption, or necropsy findings. Liver weights were increased in female mice at 750 and 1500?ppm. Minimal hypertrophy of centrilobular hepatocytes was found in female mice at 375, 750, and 1500?ppm and in male mice at 1500?ppm TBAC.

TBAC did not induce gene mutations in bacterial tests with strains of S. typhimurium and E. coli. Further, there was no evidence of clastogenic activity from tests either for the induction of chromosomal aberrations in human lymphocytes in vitro in the presence or absence of S9 mix or for the induction of micronuclei in bone marrow cells of rats exposed by inhalation for 6?h to 1600?ppm TBAC.

These results are relevant to human health risk assessment and are discussed in the context of previous studies. The weight of the scientific evidence supports the conclusion that TBAC has lower acute toxicity than previously suggested, that it is rapidly excreted when inhaled, and that neither TBAC nor its TBA metabolite are genotoxic or potential human carcinogens.     

Acclimation and tolerance of Artemia salina to copper salts

The brine shrimp Artemia salina L. was acclimated in sea water with cupric chloride, acetate, carbonate, and sulphate, each at concentrations of 0.1, 0.05 and 0.025 ppm Cu⁺⁺, together with sea water controls. Growth inhibition was observed in all four compounds, generally in direct relationship to the concentration. It was least in sulphate, and increased progressively in chloride, acetate and carbonate in that order. No inhibition however was observed in carbonate at 0.025 ppm Cu⁺⁺. In toxicity tests, 2-week old larvae from each solution were exposed to concentrations of 10, 7.5, 5, 2.5 and 1 ppm Cu⁺⁺ of the same compounds, together with unacclimated larvae of the same age. Similar tests were held with 6-week old adults acclimated (a) in 0.1 ppm Cu⁺⁺ (chloride, acetate and sulphate) using the same concentrations and (b) in 0.5 ppm Cu⁺⁺ (carbonate), using 150, 125, 100, 75, and 50 ppm Cu⁺⁺. Toxicity to unacclimated larvae and adults differed with the compounds, carbonate being the least toxic, followed by sulphate, chloride and acetate in increasing order. Larvae acclimated in chloride (0.025 ppm Cu⁺⁺) and sulphate (0.1 and 0.5 ppm Cu⁺⁺) showed an increased tolerance to 1 and 2.5 ppm Cu⁺⁺ compared to untreated controls. Tolerance was not enhanced from 5 ppm Cu⁺⁺ upwards. In both compounds, adults acclimated in 0.1 ppm Cu⁺⁺ showed an increased tolerance to concentrations between 1 and 7.5 ppm Cu⁺⁺ compared to controls. Larval mortality in carbonate was below 50% in all test solutions. Adults acclimated at 0.5 ppm Cu⁺⁺ showed an increased tolerance to 50 ppm Cu⁺⁺ compared to controls. Considerable precipitation occurred with the high levels of this compound, thus effecting the final concentrations. No acclimation effect was observed in acetate for either larvae or adults. It is suggested that in A. salina, copper toxicity depends on the particular form of the metal, and that this difference is also evident in growth inhibition and in the potential acquisition of increased tolerance through exposure to low concentrations.