The Causes,Effects, and Disease Burden Attributable to Water Quality and Sanitation Conditions in the Kassena Nankana Municipality,Ghana

The goal of this study was to assess water‐ and sanitation‐related diseases in the Kassena Nankana municipality using surveys and laboratory analyses. A total of 152 heads of households were contacted for both quantitative and qualitative research analysis. The study showed that the causes of water and sanitation diseases in the municipality were open defecation, 78 (51%); indiscriminate solid waste disposal, 31 (20%); closeness of households to refuse dumps (within 50 meters [m]), 89 (59%), and lack of access to pipe‐borne water, 93 (61%). Further analysis of water samples from pipes, boreholes, and wells revealed that out of the 20 samples, 15 (75%) tested positive for both total and fecal coliforms with values between1 and 6 colony‐forming units (CFU) per 100 milliliter (mL) sample. There is also increasing evidence that malaria contributes the greatest disease burden in the municipality, being responsible for around 23.1% of all disability adjusted life years (DALYs) between 2009 and 2013. Diarrhea and typhoid have the second and third highest disease burden rates and were responsible for approximately 19.5% and 1.2% of all DALYs between 2009 and 2013, respectively. A major recommendation of this study is that education on good sanitation be intensified, as 75 (49%) of the respondents did not attend child care programs where education on how to maintain good sanitation is given.     

Transport of fecal bacteria by boots and vehicle tires in a rural Alaskan community

People living without piped water and sewer can be at increased risk for diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route. One rural Alaskan community that relies on hauling water into homes and sewage from homes was studied to determine the pathways of fecal contamination of drinking water and the human environment so that barriers can be established to protect health. Samples were tested for the fecal indicator, Escherichia coli, and the less specific indicator group, total coliforms. Shoes transported fecal contamination from outside to floor material inside buildings. Contamination in puddles on the road, in conjunction with contamination found on all-terrain vehicle (ATV) tires, supports vehicle traffic as a mechanism for transporting contamination from the dumpsite or other source areas to the rest of the community. The abundance of fecal bacteria transported around the community on shoes and ATV tires suggests that centralized measures for waste disposal as well as shoe removal in buildings could improve sanitation and health in the community.     

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS RELATIVE TO WATER QUALITY1

Our immense national water quality control program has been launched on a wholly empirical basis, much as our ancestors initiated early navigation improvements and flood control. Not only has there been no effort to determine the benefits of water quality control; the theoretical groundwork for optimization has not been developed. Three main national objectives for consideration are national economic efficiency, preserving and improving the national environment for man's use and development (conservation), and regional development. Although popular at present, the regional development objective is not particularly useful from an economic viewpoint. Efficiency objectives other than environmental can be evaluated but are apt to be minor. Other water quality benefits can be broken down appropriately into four main categories: (a) man's recreational environment; (b) man's home environment; (c) man's working environment; (d) intangibles related to scientific, historic, health and cultural values. In management of water quality, various technical relationships must be considered, particularly as to quantity of water needed for waste disposal, and relationship of this use to water supply withdrawals. Advanced waste treatment must be compared with other alternatives, not only of flow augmentation, but also technological process changes, distribution of effluents, and artificial river aeration.     

Integrated Use of GLEAMS and GIS to Prevent Groundwater Pollution Caused by Agricultural Disposal of Animal Waste

/ In modern intensive animal farming the disposal of a large amount of waste is of great concern, as, if not properly performed, it can cause the pollution of water, mainly because of the high content of nitrate and phosphate. This paper presents the results of a study intended to assess the environmental sustainability of animal waste disposal on agricultural soils in the alluvial plain of the River Chiana (Tuscany, Italy), a particularly sensitive area because of the high vulnerability of the shallow aquifer and of the intensive agricultural and breeding activities. With this aim, a strategy has been employed, that consists of the integrated use of a management model and GISs. The consequences on groundwater of applying animal waste to different kind of soils and crop arrangements have been simulated by means of the management model GLEAMS (Groundwater Loading Effects of Agricultural Management Systems, ver 2.01). As the huge amount of data required by such a sophisticated model does not allow applications at a scale larger than the field size, IDRISI and GRASS GIS packages have been used to divide the study area into land units, with homogeneous environmental characteristics, and then to generalize on these units the outputs of the model. The main conclusions can be synthesized as follows: The amount of animal waste produced in some of the investigated areas (i.e., municipal territory) is greater than that disposable on their own agricultural soil with no risks to the groundwater; consequently a cooperative approach among municipalities is necessary in order to plan waste disposal in a comprehensive and centralized way.KEY WORDS: Land use; Animal waste disposal; Groundwater protection; GIS, Management models     

Potential health hazard of drinking water in restaurants and tea stalls

Potable and equitable drinking water (DW) is a fundamental human right and essential for human health. This study is conducted to assess the groundwater and jar water quality of the roadside restaurants and tea stalls used for drinking by the local people around the Gazipur City area in Bangladesh. Water samples from 173 restaurants and tea stalls are collected. The physico-chemical and biological parameters are analyzed according to the guidelines and standards. The results illustrate that the color, EC, and Mn of 41%, 80%, and 62% of the samples, respectively, exceed the WHO and Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR) standards. In addition, E. coli and total coliform exceeding the threshold standards are found in 47% and 64% of the water samples, respectively. The contamination of DW by fecal coliforms is confirmed and supported by prior studies, which indicates that the DW supplied in restaurants and tea stalls are unsafe because of the possible presence of pathogens. These may cause potential health hazards to consumers from various water-borne diseases. Poor sanitation, unhygienic practices, and improper disposal of wastewater are responsible for the microbial contamination of DW. So, the authorities in charge of these places should take the right regulatory steps, such as regular sanitation inspections, DW quality monitoring, hand-washing practices, and better sanitation in these places.     

Sanitation workers at the frontline: work and vulnerability in response to COVID-19

ABSTRACT

The absence of a vaccine and effective treatment for COVID-19 has created public panic and burdened the health systems in most countries. Along with health workers’, sanitation personnel are also working at the frontlines in the war against the disease by keeping cities clean. Sanitation workers are engaged in Drudgery, Dangerous, Dirty and Dehumanising work that makes them vulnerable for developing the chronic respiratory diseases due to the exposure of various hazardous materials and toxic gases that are emitted from the solid waste. The sanitation workers working on a contractual basis are excluded from the labour policies and welfare programs who are playing a vital role in fighting the pandemic. Women sanitation workers are even more vulnerable because most of them are non-literate, poor in financial management and under-represented in the sanitation employee’s union. The local and state governments should protect and safeguard sanitation workers by providing them with adequate protective equipment, ensure payment of paying adequate salaries and provide them with health insurance.     

Financing water supply and sanitation under Agenda 21

This paper assesses the financing challenges which have to be met by developing countries if water resources are to be managed efficiently, if the quality of the aquatic environment is to be improved and if water related services are to be delivered in a responsive, efficient and equitable way. This paper takes the view that attaching 'price tags' to water supply and sanitation, as was tentatively done in Agenda 21, is a misguided approach and that what is needed is articulation of clear principles which should underpin the financing of water supply and sanitation investments. To illustrate the approach the paper focuses heavily on experiences from World Bank water supply, sanitation and urban development projects over the past 30 years. The challenge is to develop appropriate institutional and financial arrangements. The essence of such arrangements is that they ensure that societies mobilize appropriate levels of resources for providing water related environmental services and that these resources are used in the most efficient and effective way possible .     

Open waste burning in Cameroonian cities: an environmental impact analysis

Lack of technology and efficient management of solid waste coupled with poverty have motivated most developing countries to sort for cheap waste disposal methods with negative consequences on the environment. Open burning at waste dumps causes serious toxicological impacts. Most organic solid waste excluding plastics when burned cause considerably little environmental pollution. However, non-stoichiometric combustion of waste plastics produces significant amounts of various aliphatic and aromatic compounds, acidic gases, dust and smoke. These products pollute the air, water and soil generating significant health problems with related socioeconomic impacts on human, animals and plants. Some of these pollutants are toxic and/or carcinogenic, form acid-rain and influence climate change. Critical discourse and research on environmental toxicology resulting from air pollution with related health risk and impacts have been catalysed by the enactment of major environmental regulations and increased awareness. The new clean air act amendment of 1990 is estimated to require about $25billion annually for its implementation in the United States, indicating the gravity of the pollution problem. Understanding, controlling and mitigating the impacts of chemical pollution from multiple sources related to open burning of plastics is complex. This paper uses content analysis of relevant literature and field observations to analyse, evaluate and identify characteristic pollutants including their transmission potentials, sources and impacts on human health with the assessment, prevention and management of related risk. An affordable technology-based approach applied within a bottom-up management strategy to prevent and control pollution offers a sustainable solution underpinned by resource and energy recovery from waste.     

Critical review of medical waste legislation in Spain

Medical waste is potentially dangerous since it may contain pathogenic agents. As a result, medical waste management requires that institutions take decisions, and implement a wide range of measures in order to reduce health risks. In this respect, many European countries have enacted legislation and good practice guidelines to define, classify, and treat medical waste. In reference to Spain, even though no specific national law has as yet been passed to regulate medical waste management, 13 of its regional governments have adopted regulations concerning medical waste management to guarantee health and environment protection. This paper presents the results of a study of the regional legislation in Spain. In our research, certain differences were detected regarding the criteria used for sorting, collection, storage, transport, treatment, and disposal practices. It was found that these differences in waste management criteria could have health implications as well as environmental and economic consequences, both inside and outside healthcare installations. The paper also proposes a set of general criteria upon which medical waste management should be based. Effective medical waste management should include the following: (i) a clear definition of medical waste and of the scope of legislation concerning it; (ii) basic principles to promote the reduction of the amount of waste generated at a source; (iii) a homogeneous classification of this waste; (iv) the implementation of environment-friendly waste treatment technologies.     

城市生活垃圾处理能力提升的驱动因素研究——基于2004—2020年30个省份的实证分析

提升末端生活垃圾处理能力,走出城市“垃圾围城”之困,一直是地方政府关切的核心议题。为探究城市生活垃圾处理能力的影响因素及其时空差异,从“政府能力系统”视角出发,围绕需求驱动、经济驱动、政策驱动、技术驱动四个维度,提出相关研究假设,并运用2004—2020年30个省份的面板数据进行实证检验。研究发现：生活垃圾清运量、人均GDP、地方环保支出、政策文本出台数量、无害化处理厂数量以及市容环卫专用车辆数均对城市生活垃圾处理能力的提升具有促进作用。在时间变化上,2004—2007年为生活垃圾处理能力初创阶段,受到经济、政策与技术驱动因素的显著影响; 2008—2016年为生活处理能力缓慢提升和局部发展阶段,持续受到技术驱动因素的显著作用;2017—2020年为处理能力全面提升阶段,需求、经济与技术因素均呈现出显著促进作用。在区域变化上,经济驱动的影响效应由东部向西部逐渐减弱,需求驱动、政策驱动因素只在东部地区影响显著,技术驱动因素对不同区域的生活垃圾处理能力均具有显著促进作用。最后,研究从源头减量、资金投入、政策倾斜与技术创新等方面,对促进中国城市生活垃圾处理能力的发展提供了相应的政策建议。     

BETTER WATER RESOURCES THROUGH SEWERLESS SANITATION1

ABSTRACT: The water-flushed sewage system represented an advance in human sanitation when adopted in the nineteenth century but is coming under increasing criticism because it wastes water of drinking quality and sewage treatment plants do not completely clean the effluent. A number of on-site waste disposal systems are now available or under development which may eliminate the need for sewers and central treatment plants: aerobic, biological, composting, incinerating, oil-flushed, and vacuum or pressure systems. Official agencies should test them to determine if one or more can replace central sewer systems. As part of the program, the kitchen garbage grinder should be phased out.     

Health-care waste management in India.

Health-care waste management in India is receiving greater attention due to recent regulations (the Biomedical Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998). The prevailing situation is analysed covering various issues like quantities and proportion of different constituents of wastes, handling, treatment and disposal methods in various health-care units (HCUs). The waste generation rate ranges between 0.5 and 2.0 kg bed-1 day-1. It is estimated that annually about 0.33 million tonnes of waste are generated in India. The solid waste from the hospitals consists of bandages, linen and other infectious waste (30-35%), plastics (7-10%), disposable syringes (0.3-0.5%), glass (3-5%) and other general wastes including food (40-45%). In general, the wastes are collected in a mixed form, transported and disposed of along with municipal solid wastes. At many places, authorities are failing to install appropriate systems for a variety of reasons, such as non-availability of appropriate technologies, inadequate financial resources and absence of professional training on waste management. Hazards associated with health-care waste management and shortcomings in the existing system are identified. The rules for management and handling of biomedical wastes are summarised, giving the categories of different wastes, suggested storage containers including colour-coding and treatment options. Existing and proposed systems of health-care waste management are described. A waste-management plan for health-care establishments is also proposed, which includes institutional arrangements, appropriate technologies, operational plans, financial management and the drawing up of appropriate staff training programmes.     

Universal access to water and sanitation: Why the private sector must participate

Against the background of the current state of provision of drinking water and sanitation in the world — with one billion lacking safe water, and 2.2 billion not having adequate sanitation — this article argues that private participation is necessary. The most important issues for the management of water utilities in the 21^st century are identified as mobilizing investment for the highly capital intensive operation of water supply and sanitation infrastructure, and achieving efficiency in the delivery of services. The article highlights the issues that need to be raised if private investment is to be seriously considered as an alternative. Case studies, especially from Latin America (Argentina, Chile, Peru, Bolivia), illustrate different modes of private participation, and possible reasons for successes and failures are discussed. The article stresses that regardless of the modality of private sector involvement, on‐going government regulatory responsibility in the water sector is crucial. It suggests that regulatory policy must go beyond just setting tariffs, to develop standards for drinking water quality and waste treatment, as well as other standards. In conclusion, the article recognizes that numerous and increasingly difficult challenges face utilities in fulfilling their responsibility to deliver drinking water of adequate quality, in sufficient quantity, and at affordable prices, as well as safe and sustainable disposal of wastewaters for members of urban and rural communities.     

The CUSO-Togo village water supply project and lucrative micro-projects (LMPs)

When the Togo village water project was first conceived, it was intended to provide potable water and improve the health and sanitation practices at village level. However, a subsequent socio-economic survey found that the village often lacked the financial resources needed to maintain and repair the water works which were to be installed. It was decided therefore to expand the programme to include assistance to the village for the establishment of community development enterprises, the profit of which would provide the funds needed to maintain the village water works. On the implementation of this programme, women became the major participants in the community development enterprises. This paper discusses the institutional structure of those community development enterprises (called 'Lucrative Micro-Projects') and the role that women have played in them. The 'Lucrative Micro-Projects' have been so successful that they have become a means of furthering social and economic development at the village level.     

Current and Future Strategies for Water and Wastewater Management of Istanbul City

Istanbul has experienced rapid increases in population to more than 12 million people, which has created infrastructure problems of water supply and wastewater treatment and disposal. In this article, the achievements and approaches of the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (ISKI) to solve the water shortage problem and to improve services are summarized. Istanbul had a very severe water shortage problem in 1994 because of ignorance of the implementation of the needed projects. After reviewing the reasons and causes of the problem, new priority criteria adopted after 1994 are given. Following the implementation of the projects determined according to the aforementioned criteria, water supplied has exceeded the water demand. The added capacity is equal to one to three times of the capacity built up to 1994 for water treatment, service reservoirs, pumping stations, transmission lines, and the water distribution network; water quality has been improved the meet local and international potable water standards. Unaccounted for water has been reduced from 60% to 27%. The percentage of treated wastewater has been increased from 10% to 90% in 8 years, resulting in drastic improvements and rehabilitation of the Golden Horn and coastal water quality. Through improved customer services, complaints were reduced from 33% in 1994 to 0.3%. Some of the main criteria and the approaches behind this success are summarized. Published online     

中原油田总机厂镍磷化学镀废水治理

利用价廉、来源广的石灰复配聚丙烯酰胺（ＰＡＭ）作为絮凝剂，处理镍磷化学镀废水。实验结果表明：石灰复配ＰＡＭ，明显加快絮体的沉降速度并减少絮体的体积，经处理后水质符合外排标准，处理费用大幅度下降，是一种经济可行的方法。根据实验结果为中原油田总机厂设计出镍磷化学镀废水治理方案。     

餐厨垃圾预处理工艺研究及现场应用

餐厨垃圾有机质含量大,具有较高的回收价值,资源化利用是发展的趋势,但是我国餐厨垃圾具有含水量大、杂物多、油脂提取难等特点,增加了处理的难度.研发一套餐厨垃圾预处理工艺,并对相关设备的结构尺寸进行了优化,形成了以精分选、高提油为特点的工艺技术,综合杂物拣出率达到95％以上,提油率达到98％以上.该工艺在光大国际宿迁100...     

Hospital waste management in El-Beheira Governorate,Egypt

This study investigated the hospital waste management practices used by eight randomly selected hospitals located in Damanhour City of El-Beheira Governorate and determined the total daily generation rate of their wastes. Physico-chemical characteristics of hospital wastes were determined according to standard methods. A survey was conducted using a questionnaire to collect information about the practices related to waste segregation, collection procedures, the type of temporary storage containers, on-site transport and central storage area, treatment of wastes, off-site transport, and final disposal options. This study indicated that the quantity of medical waste generated by these hospitals was 1.249 tons/day. Almost two-thirds was waste similar to domestic waste. The remainder (38.9%) was considered to be hazardous waste. The survey results showed that segregation of all wastes was not conducted according to consistent rules and standards where some quantity of medical waste was disposed of with domestic wastes. The most frequently used treatment method for solid medical waste was incineration which is not accepted at the current time due to the risks associated with it. Only one of the hospitals was equipped with an incinerator which is devoid of any air pollution control system. Autoclaving was also used in only one of the selected hospitals. As for the liquid medical waste, the survey results indicated that nearly all of the surveyed hospitals were discharging it in the municipal sewerage system without any treatment. It was concluded that the inadequacies in the current hospital waste management practices in Damanhour City were mainly related to ineffective segregation at the source, inappropriate collection methods, unsafe storage of waste, insufficient financial and human resources for proper management, and poor control of waste disposal. The other issues that need to be considered are a lack of appropriate protective equipment and lack of training and clear lines of responsibilities between the departments involved in hospital waste management. Effective medical waste management programs are multisectoral and require cooperation between all levels of implementation, from national and local governments to hospital staff and private businesses.     

上海市食品废弃物处理处置现状综述

对上海市生活垃圾中食品废弃物和餐厨垃圾近年来的产生状况进行了综述,讨论了上海市对生活垃圾中食品废弃物和餐厨垃圾的管理和处理处置现状,并分别进行了总结。最后对上海市食品废弃物的资源化利用进行了展望。