Vulnerability assessment and adaptation to the impacts of sea level rise on the Kingdom of Bahrain

This paper assesses quantitatively the impact of sea level rise (SLR) at the global and regional scale as a result of climate change (CC) on the coastal areas of the Kingdom of Bahrain’s islands (36 Islands). The standard Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines was modified as appropriate for the situation of the study area. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) coupled with Remote Sensing (RS) were used as the main techniques of collecting, analyzing, modeling simulating and disseminating information to build SLR scenarios in a geographically referenced context. Also, these tools were used to assess vulnerability and risk of the coastal area of the islands with the expectation that coastal planner and government authorities will profit from integrating these knowledge into a broad based environmental decision making. Three SLR scenarios: low, moderate and high were developed to examine the impacts from SLR on all islands. The low SLR scenario (Optimistic) assumes a 0.5-m rise above current sea level, the moderate scenario (Intermediate) assumes a one meter rise, and the high scenario (Pessimistic) assumes a 1.5 m rise in sea level. Two more SLR scenarios were assumed to perform risk analysis, a 2 and 5 meter rise above current sea level. The simulation of SLR are quite straightforward, emphasizing on the uses of both of the data that are incorporated from the satellite images and the created Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to estimate SLR scenarios that are adapted in the study. These data were used to predict consequences of the possibility of the rise in sea level at different scenarios which may alter the landuse and patterns of human communities. Results indicate that low-lying coastal areas of Bahrain islands are at risk from the effects of any SLR resulting from CC. These islands are vulnerable under different SLR Scenarios. More than 17% of the country total area may be inundated under 1.5 m SLR in 2100. The total area that might be lost under different sea level scenarios will vary from more than 77 km² if SLR reaches 0.5 m, to about 100 km² under 1.0 m SLR and may reach 124 km² under 1.5 m SLR scenario. The total inundated areas due to risk scenarios will reach 133 km², if the SLR rises to 2.0 m, and it is estimated to be more than (22%) of the main island total area. Under the second scenario, if the SLR reaches 5.0 m, the main islands will lose approximately half of its area (47%) equal to 280 km². Hawar islands group will lose about (30%) of its total area under 2.0 m SLR, which is about 15.5 km².A SLR adaptation policy framework (APF) and adaptation policy initiatives (APIs) are suggested for planners to build upon for reducing the likely effects of SLR in the Kingdom of Bahrain. The framework is composed of four steps namely, acquisition of information, planning and design, implementation and monitoring and evaluation. A general policy framework for a national response to SLR is suggested. Additionally, a range of policy adaptation options/initiatives to sustain coastal developments under the likely effects of SLR are recommended.     

Coastal household adaptation cost requirements to sea level rise impacts

This study assessed the autonomous adaptation cost requirements of coastal households to sea level rise impacts at a level to accommodate and protect (excluding retreat). The study examined six vulnerable villages, including both urbanized and fishery communities, located in the Gulf of Thailand. Half of them were near the shore, and the other half were further inland. In initiating the study, to assess actual adaptation costs, common household adaptative measures were first identified; then, using a questionnaire to collect associated costs data, interviews were conducted with individual households. To predict future adaptation costs, the study applied the budgeting for recurrent costs of investment and the future value of an equal annual expenditures payment. Adaptation costs were classified into capital and operating expenditures. Then a statistical comparison was completed of the mean differences in costs between the villages. The study results indicate that the impacted households primarily spent their money for capital expenditures related to home and farming environments. Operating expenditures are not a concern for them. The expected future adaptation costs adjusted with inflation throughout the next 30 years will be five times that of the present costs. This will require households to plan their savings very carefully. Whereas the adaptation costs of urbanized villages are clearly higher than those of fishery villages, there is no significant difference in the costs between near shore and next-to-shore villages. Information regarding adaptation costs at the household level is extremely rare. Knowing the requisite amount for the adaptation costs will be of added benefit to policy makers preparing for future assistance programs.     

Economy-wide impacts of climate change: a joint analysis for sea level rise and tourism

While climate change impacts on human life have well defined and different origins, the interactions among the diverse impacts are not yet fully understood. Their final effects, however, especially those involving social-economic responses, are likely to play an important role. This paper is one of the first attempts to disentangle and highlight the role of these interactions. It focuses on the economic assessment of two specific climate change impacts: sea-level rise and changes in tourism flows. By using a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model the two impacts categories are first analysed separately and then jointly. Considered separately, in 2050, the forecasted 25 cm. of sea level rise imply a GDP loss ranging from (−) 0.1% in South East Asia to almost no loss in Canada, while redistribution of tourism flows – which in terms of arrivals favours Western Europe, Japan, Korea and Canada and penalises all the other world regions – triggers GDP losses ranging from (−) 0.5% in Small Island States to (−) 0.0004% in Canada. GDP gainers are Australia, New Zealand, Western Europe, Middle East and South Asia. The impact of sea level rise and tourism were simulated jointly and the results compared with those of the two disjoint simulations. From a qualitative point of view, the joint effects are similar to the outcomes of the disjoint exercises; from a quantitative perspective, however, impact interaction does play a significant role. In six cases out of 16 there is a detectable (higher than 2% and peaking to 70%) difference between the sum of the outcomes in the disjoint simulation and the outcomes of the joint simulations. Moreover, the relative contribution of each single impact category has been disentangled from the final result. In the case under scrutiny, demand shocks induced by changes in tourism flows outweigh the supply-side shock induced by the loss of coastal land.

海平面上升和土地利用驱动下红树林生境脆弱性研究

为了探索海平面上升(SLR)和土地利用导致的红树林生境潜在变化,本文以我国红树林分布最集中的雷州半岛为研究区域,基于SLAMM模型和景观生态模型建立了红树林生境脆弱性指数,设置4个SLR-土地利用组合情景(SLR4.5-土地开发利用、SLR4.5-土地自然转换、SLR8.5-土地开发利用、SLR8.5-土地自然转换),预测2050年雷州半岛红树林的生境变化和脆弱程度,并提出应对环境变化的管理策略.结果表明,(1)SLR和土地利用双重压力的叠加将造成红树林生境的显著退化,预测生境面积将减少16.59%～25.61%,减少地点集中在铁山港、安铺港、湛江港、雷州湾和流沙湾沿岸.(2)在土地自然转换情景下,尽管仍应对着海平面上升的压力,红树林潜在生境面积可增加44.66%～67.74%,增加的区域集中在岸线往内陆方向和沿水系向内陆延伸的两岸,但新增生境面临着破碎化程度高的问题.(3)在所有情景下均呈现红树林迁出现有保护区的趋势,保护区内红树林面积由5949.8hm²下降至4732.1～5192.9hm².(4)高脆弱区主要分布在雷州湾、湛江港近岸和流...     

Need for adaptation strategy against global sea level rise: an example from Saudi coast of Arabian gulf

This paper reports sea level rise (SLR) scenarios causing land loss, environmental degradation and destruction of infrastructure in the Saudi coast of the Arabian Gulf. Human development structures such as, sea ports, desalination plants, industrial establishments, commercial buildings, fish farms etc. will be impacted, leading to great economic losses. A systematic analysis on the current environmental setting of east coast of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) versus the existing infrastructure assets indicates that a 1?m sea level rise in Arabian Gulf affects approximately 650?km² land area, along the Saudi coastline of ~1,800?km in 1:50,000 scale. Three simulation scenarios were created with respect to 1?m, 2?m and 3?m rises from the present mean sea level and its impacts were assessed. Maps depicting major infrastructure assets, ecologically sensitive elements, historical locations, anthropogenic zones, and Environmental Sensitivity Indices (ESI) were used for overlaying the sea level change map, in a Geographic Information System (GIS) platform. In general, the Jubail Marine Park area will have serious impact due to SLR. The inundation of low?Clying lands will affect the mangroves species of Dawhat Ad Dafi, coral reefs, coastal salt marshes, groundwater aquifers, and fish stocks. The risk of inundation on the Abu Ali Island, given their status as marine sanctuary of international importance, is particularly high. As an adaptation strategy, it is proposed that the KSA should implement Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan (ICZMP) for the Arabian Gulf coast without further delay for the protection of its vulnerable resources and for sustainable development.     

Vulnerability and adaptation to climate risks in Ontario agriculture

A vulnerability approach to climate change adaptation research is employed to explore prospects of agricultural adaptation to climatic variability and change. The methodological approach focuses on the system of concern, in this case, farms in Perth County, Ontario. Twenty-five interviews and four focus groups with farmers were used to identify climate risks on farms, and to document farmers’ responses to conditions and risks associated with climate and weather. The information collected describes a complex decision-making environment, with many forces both external and internal to the farm operation influencing management decisions. Within this environment, climate and weather are consistently referred to as a significant force influencing both farm operations and management decisions. Farmers have, however, developed a wide-range of anticipatory and reactive management strategies to manage climate risks. While these have potential to address future climate-related risks and opportunities, there are limits to adaptation, and an increase in the frequency of extreme events may exceed their adaptive capacities. Farmers are also generally unaware and/or unconcerned about future climate change, which could constrain opportunities to adopt long-term climate change adaptations.     

The Nile delta-Alexandria coast: vulnerability to sea-level rise,consequences and adaptation

Like many delta systems, the coastal zoneof the Nile delta has been designated as avulnerable zone to a rising sea level as aconsequence of expected climate changescombined with geological and human factors.In view of the understanding of thesefactors, a degree of vulnerabilityanalysis has been carried out to betterlocate which sectors need to be assessedand adapted to possible sea level rise(SLR) for the Nile delta-Alexandria region of Egypt.Results reveal that not all of the coastalzones of the Nile delta are vulnerable toaccelerated sea-level rise at the samelevel. Based on multiple criteria the Niledelta-Alexandria coast can be categorizedinto vulnerable (30%), invulnerable (55%)and artificially protected coastalstretches (15%). These criteria include:local subsidence or uplifting, relativesea-level rise (RSLR), land topography,width of lagoon barriers, beach-face slope,high-elevated features such as dunes andridges, eroding and accreting coastlinesand protection works.Moreover, this study evaluates thelong-term relative sea-level rise andsubsidence rates along the Nile delta andAlexandria coasts. Statistical analysis oflong-term tide gauge data recorded atAlexandria, Burullus and Port Said yieldsvalues of 1.6, 1.0 and 2.2 mm/yr,respectively. These values of relativesea-level rise and long-term subsidencerate obtained from age-dated sediment coresections are inconsistent: long-termsubsidence appears to be larger (maximum of7 mm/ yr). This discrepancy might beexplained if the subsidence is episodic,and occurs rather abruptly during majorearthquakes that occur every few hundredyears associated with fault trend lines.Rising sea levels could have significantlongterm impacts on the Nile delta,including the distribution of ground watersalinity and erosion of the narrow andlow-lying barriers of the Burullus andManzala lagoons. Adaptive measures alongthe study area particularly those relatedto coastal protective structures are alsoevaluated.     

The double trade-off between adaptation and mitigation for sea level rise: an application of FUND

This paper studies the effects of adaptation and mitigation on the impacts of sea level rise. Without adaptation, the impact of sea level rise would be substantial, almost wiping out entire countries by 2100, although the globally aggregate effect is much smaller. Adaptation would reduce potential impacts by a factor 10–100. Adaptation would come at a minor cost compared to the damage avoided. As adaptation depends on socio-economic status, the rank order of most vulnerable countries is different than the rank order of most exposed countries. Because the momentum of sea level rise is so large, mitigation can reduce impacts only to a limited extent. Stabilising carbon dioxide concentrations at 550 ppm would cut impacts in 2100 by about 10%. However, the costs of emission reduction lower the avoided impacts by up to 25% (average 10%). This is partly due to the reduced availability of resources for adaptation, and partly due to the increased sensitivity to wetland loss by adaptation.

Risks of sea level rise to disadvantaged communities in the United States

Climate change and sea level rise (SLR) pose risks to coastal communities around the world, but societal understanding of the distributional and equity implications of SLR impacts and adaptation actions remains limited. Here, we apply a new analytic tool to identify geographic areas in the contiguous United States that may be more likely to experience disproportionate impacts of SLR, and to determine if and where socially vulnerable populations would bear disproportionate costs of adaptation. We use the Social Vulnerability Index (SoVI) to identify socially vulnerable coastal communities, and combine this with output from a SLR coastal property model that evaluates threats of inundation and the economic efficiency of adaptation approaches to respond to those threats. Results show that under the mid-SLR scenario (66.9 cm by 2100), approximately 1,630,000 people are potentially affected by SLR. Of these, 332,000 (～20%) are among the most socially vulnerable. The analysis also finds that areas of higher social vulnerability are much more likely to be abandoned than protected in response to SLR. This finding is particularly true in the Gulf region of the United States, where over 99% of the most socially vulnerable people live in areas unlikely to be protected from inundation, in stark contrast to the least socially vulnerable group, where only 8% live in areas unlikely to be protected. Our results demonstrate the importance of considering the equity and environmental justice implications of SLR in climate change policy analysis and coastal adaptation planning.     

Diagnosing institutional barriers and opportunities for adaptation to climate change

Institutions are one of the decisive factors which enable, constrain and shape adaptation to the impacts of climate change, variability and extreme events. However, current understanding of institutions in adaptation situations is fragmented across the scientific community, evidence diverges, and cumulative learning beyond single studies is limited. This study adopts a diagnostic approach to elaborate a nuanced understanding of institutional barriers and opportunities in climate adaptation by means of a model-centred meta-analysis of 52 case studies of public climate adaptation in Europe. The first result is a novel taxonomy of institutional attributes in adaptation situations. It conceptually organises and decomposes the many details of institutions that empirical research has shown to shape climate adaptation. In the second step, the paper identifies archetypical patterns of institutional traps and trade-offs which hamper adaptation. Thirdly, corresponding opportunities are identified that enable actors to alleviate, prevent or overcome specific institutional traps or trade-offs. These results cast doubt on the validity of general institutional design principles for successful adaptation. In contrast to generic principles, the identified opportunities provide leverage to match institutions to specific governance problems that are encountered in specific contexts. Taken together, the results may contribute to more coherence and integration of adaptation research that we need if we are to foster learning about the role of institutions in adaptation situations in a cumulative fashion.     

Mitigation and adaptation investments for desertification and climate change: an assessment of the socioeconomic return

Climate change will further increase the risk of desertification, which is already affecting large areas of the world. Many countries are making investments for the implementation of mitigation and adaptation strategies to combat desertification. The long term effectiveness of these strategies necessarily require a socioeconomic return for its sustainability. The main goal of our paper is to assess the relation between the mitigation and adaptation investments and the socio-economy of the rural population. The area of study is located in north-central Chile. The northern regions are mostly composed by arid land, which can be considered as a marginal area for agriculture. The area formed by the southern regions is optimal for the agricultural activity which is characterized by an industrialized agriculture with and increased use of technology. The indicators we have used for our study are the following: the Investments provided by the Chilean Agriculture Livestock and Forestry (ALF) promotion agencies, the ALF Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Population Employed in ALF. The results show that the relationship between the investments and the socioeconomy varies among the regions analyzed. Investments are positively correlated (P?≤?0.05) with the ALF GDP and the labor in ALF in the northern regions, but do not seem to be directly related to labor in ALF in the southern regions (P?≥?0.05). Therefore, our conclusion is that the Investments are significantly relevant for the agricultural activity in the arid northern regions, while in the southern regions they have no direct impact on the labor in ALF.     

Assessing inundation damage and timing of adaptation: sea level rise and the complexities of land use in coastal communities

Climate change exacerbates the public policy challenges already present in managing contested landscapes. Coastal managers deal with multiple stressors and multiple stakeholders and have a difficult challenge in managing competing land use as sea level rise (SLR) reduces the amount of prized coastal land. The information needed to inform on the type and timing of adaptation strategies reflects a major gap in the planning and implementation of adaptation options. We present here an inundation risk assessment framework (IRAF) for estimating the impacts of increasing SLR inundation extent probabilities and the cost of inundation damage through time for public and private infrastructure assets. The framework integrates the cost of damage across asset classes in order to help decision-makers judge the economic utility of various adaptation options and the timing of implementation. We provide an example of this methodology using a case study from Southeast Australia in a low lying estuarine region with an increasingly urbanized population. The methodology shows a clear pathway in which to integrate multiple asset classes into a temporally based damage cost analysis. Such methodology will help address the timing of adaptation and allow for the development of trigger points to guide adaptation planning. Thus, the framework developed in this paper can be easily transferred to other regions and countries facing the same types of SLR risks. As SLR and inundation encroachment continue to occur, decisions regarding protection, repair, and retreat will be made depending on the resources available to local governments. The challenge is to balance decision making with both the timing of implementation as well as costs (both of action and inaction). By understanding the areas of land lost to inundation and the cost of inaction through time, local governments can assess the rationality of adaptation at points in the present and future.     

Transformative learning and adaptation to climate change in the Canadian Prairie agro-ecosystem

Agricultural production in the Canadian Prairies is expected to be negatively affected as climate change projections for the region indicate warmer temperatures, greater incidence and severity of extreme weather events, and reduced water availability and soil moisture. To understand climate change adaption, it is important to explore the learning process that underlies farmer’s adaptation practices in the region. Prairie farmers’ learning was analyzed using Transformative Learning Theory whereby learning is categorized into three types: instrumental, communicative, and transformative. All producers learned instrumentally to some degree, but farmers who placed less emphasis on maximizing economic returns generally showed secondary learning outcomes correlating economic and environmental benefits. Communicative learning was mainly limited to producer-producer dialogue to the exclusion of other organizational and institutional players in the agricultural system. Critical reflection was explored as an important precursor to transformative learning. Strong evidence of transformative learning was rare (observed in 11% of farmers), but indicators of transformative learning were diverse and was observed in 43% of farmers. Transformative learning is believed to be important for flexible decision-making and autonomous thinking, making it advantageous for responding to changing environmental conditions. The analysis shows that a large number of information sources, and communication of information in an experiential and observable way, is conducive to transformative learning. Adaptation to environmental uncertainty, resulting from changing climatic conditions, may be most effectively dealt with when individual farmers undergo transformative learning whereby underlying assumptions that govern actions, values, and claims to knowledge are questioned.     

Exploring barriers to climate change adaptation in the Swiss tourism sector

Increasingly, various sectors are affected by climate change and need to find ways to adapt with much public guidance and support. This paper examines the adaptation process of a sector that started it some time ago – Swiss Alpine tourism. It identifies barriers that may be relevant for all sectors, all along the successive phases of the adaptation process. It additionally identifies the barriers which are most important and how these can be overcome. In order to do this we use an online survey directed to Swiss tourism stakeholders. Our results indicate that both economic and social feasibility barriers are important impediments to the adjustment process, whereas the acceptability among inhabitants and the willingness to act of stakeholders appear less critical. These barriers can be overcome and adaptation facilitated with more and especially better information about the regional consequences of climate change and feasible adaptation measures, by some top-down leadership and coordination, and by providing financial support.     

Forest policies and programs affecting vulnerability and adaptation to climate change

Due to large scale afforestation programs and forest conservation legislations, India’s total forest area seems to have stabilized or even increased. In spite of such efforts, forest fragmentation and degradation continues, with forests being subject to increased pressure due to anthropogenic factors. Such fragmentation and degradation is leading to the forest cover to change from very dense to moderately dense and open forest and 253 km² of very dense forest has been converted to moderately dense forest, open forest, scrub and non-forest (during 2005–2007). Similarly, there has been a degradation of 4,120 km² of moderately dense forest to open forest, scrub and non-forest resulting in a net loss of 936 km² of moderately dense forest. Additionally, 4,335 km² of open forest have degraded to scrub and non-forest. Coupled with pressure due to anthropogenic factors, climate change is likely to be an added stress on forests. Forest sector programs and policies are major factors that determine the status of forests and potentially resilience to projected impacts of climate change. An attempt is made to review the forest policies and programs and their implications for the status of forests and for vulnerability of forests to projected climate change. The study concludes that forest conservation and development policies and programs need to be oriented to incorporate climate change impacts, vulnerability and adaptation.     

广东沿岸海域牡蛎和鱼虾中石油烃的残留与风险评估

为探讨石油污染对广东沿岸海域水产品食用安全的影响,探索建立了石油残留风险分级方法,用荧光法测定了2001~2010年广东沿岸海域近江牡蛎（Crassostrea rivularis）体石油烃,推测了同期该海域鱼虾石油烃残留水平。结果表明,牡蛎体石油烃含量（按湿重计）为 < 0.2×10-6~36×10-6,不会产生石油气味。平均含量9.4×10-6在国内沿岸海域牡蛎体中属较低水平,但高于本海域1989~1992年6.7×10-6的平均含量。石油烃在99.3%的牡蛎样本中检出,在16.7%的样本中达到或略超过我国15×10-6的限量值。牡蛎体石油烃年均含量、超标率在2001~2006年均呈下降趋势,但2007年之后略有上升,在珠江口和珠三角产业转移区牡蛎中上升更明显。推测该海域鱼虾石油烃含量大多低于15×10-6,较高者一般不超过30×10-6,超标或产生石油气味的风险极小。     

Prioritization of climate change adaptation approaches in the Gambia

Adaptation to climate change has been recognized as very important in developing countries that face the greatest threats from global warming. In proposing various adaptation approaches, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change required nations to prepare adaptation plans of action. However, the areas of priority in climate change adaptation have not been considered. This study has developed a new prioritization methodology for climate change adaptation in developing countries. Five categories and 25 approaches in climate change adaptation were adopted through a thorough and detailed analysis of pertinent literature related to the National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA) in the Gambia. A fuzzy analytic hierarchy process-based questionnaire survey was designed and presented to 12 experts chosen from the committee members of the Gambia’s NAPA. The survey was made to determine the relative importance of the strategies for climate change adaptation. The results indicate that the five most important adaptation categories are health (0.223), forestry (0.213), water (0.210), food (0.181), and energy (0.174), with health as the number one priority in climate change adaptation. Further findings show that the prioritization order of the adaptation approaches to climate change in the Gambia is as follows: “Health education,” “public sensitization,” “water supply infrastructure development,” “microfinance,” and “infrastructure and technology enhancement.”     

A decision inventory approach for improving decision support for climate change impact assessment and adaptation

Assessing and adapting to the impacts of climate change requires balancing social, economic, and environmental factors in the context of an ever-expanding range of objectives, uncertainties, and management options. The term decision support describes a diverse class of resources designed to help manage this complexity and assist decision makers in understanding impacts and evaluating management options. Most climate-related decision support resources implicitly assume that decision making is primarily limited by the quantity and quality of available information. However, a wide variety of evidence suggests that institutional, political, and communication processes are also integral to organizational decision making. Decision support resources designed to address these processes are underrepresented in existing tools. These persistent biases in the design and delivery of decision support may undermine efforts to move decision support from research to practice. The development of new approaches to decision support that consider a wider range of relevant issues is limited by the lack of information about the characteristics, context, and alternatives associated with climate-related decisions. We propose a new approach called a decision assessment and decision inventory that will provide systematic information describing the relevant attributes of climate-related decisions. This information can be used to improve the design of decision support resources, as well as to prioritize research and development investments. Application of this approach will help provide more effective decision support based on a balanced foundation of analytical tools, environmental data, and relevant information about decisions and decision makers.     

1989~2010年广东沿海牡蛎体内Pb的时空分布及风险评价

通过对1989~2010年广东沿岸15个采样点牡蛎体内Pb含量的监测和有关历史资料,分析了粤东、珠江口和粤西沿岸海域牡蛎体内Pb的时空分布特征,并采用单因子指数和非致癌性风险指数法(NCHI)评价了Pb的食用风险.结果表明,广东沿海牡蛎体内Pb的浓度范围为N.D.~3.65mg/kg,总体平均值为0.41mg/kg,从总体看其出现频数呈偏正态分布.牡蛎体内Pb的年际变化呈现逐渐降低的趋势,从2001年后波动趋于平缓并有微弱的上升;其空间分布特征表现为珠江口>粤西3粤东的变化规律,具体表现为粤东和粤西牡蛎体内Pb浓度随时间延长均表现为明显的下降趋势,珠江口牡蛎体内Pb浓度从2006~2010年开始有明显的下降.单因子指数和非致癌性风险指数评价结果均表明,广东沿岸牡蛎体内Pb的浓度未产生明显污染,对人体不具有非致癌性风险.     

小岛国灭顶之灾及其对策研究

<正>马尔代夫政府曾于2009年10月17日,在海底6米处召开内阁会议,内阁成员身穿紧身潜水服,携带水下呼吸器潜至水下,利用书写板和手势进行会议交流(见图1)。水下内阁会议旨在通过一项决议,呼吁国际社会进一步关注全球变暖引起的海平面升高。根据2007年政府间气候变化专门委员会的评估报告,到2100年全球海平面有可能上升18-59厘米。联合国一份调查报告显示,全球平均温度每10年上升0.1℃,这使大多数小岛屿国家所处的热带海洋地区的海平面每年上升2毫米。联合国环境规划署的一份报告指出,若不采