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1.
Recent investigations have indicated that animals are able to use chemical cues of predators to assess the magnitude of predation
risk. One possible source of such cues is predator diet. Chemical cues may also be important in the development of antipredator
behaviour, especially in animals that possess chemical alarm substances. Tadpoles of the common toad (Bufo bufo) are unpalatable to most vertebrate predators and have an alarm substance. Tadpoles of the common frog (Rana temporaria) lack both these characters. We experimentally studied how predator diet, previous experience of predators and body size
affect antipredator behaviour in these two tadpole species. Late-instar larvae of the dragonfly Aeshna juncea were used as predators. The dragonfly larvae were fed a diet exclusively of insects, R. temporaria tadpoles or B. bufo tadpoles. R. temporaria tadpoles modified their behaviour according to the perceived predation risk. Depending on predator diet, the tadpoles responded
with weak antipredatory behaviour (triggered by insect-fed predators) or strong behaviour (triggered by tadpole-fed predators)
with distinct spatial avoidance and lowered activity level. The behaviour of B. bufo in predator diet treatments was indistinguishable from that in the control treatment. This lack of antipredator behaviour
is probably related to the effective post-encounter defenses and more intense competitive regime experienced by B. bufo. The behaviour of both tadpole species was dependent on body size, but this was not related to predator treatments. Our results
also indicate that antipredator behaviour is largely innate in tadpoles of both species and is not modified by a brief exposure
to predators.
Received: 22 August 1996 / Accepted after revision: 31 January 1997 相似文献
2.
Allison J. Abell 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,41(4):217-226
The association between spatial proximity and paternity was studied in a population of the striped plateau lizard, Sceloporus virgatus. The relationship between estimated mating success and male phenotypic traits was examined for a sample of 55 males. DNA
samples were obtained from 13 female-offspring families. The males with the closest spatial proximity to each female were
tested as possible sires within each family. Fingerprinting with two multilocus hypervariable minisatellite probes revealed
a strong correspondence between male-female spatial proximity and actual paternity. Paternity could be assigned for 72 of
the 100 hatchlings. Most hatchlings with identifiable sires were attributed to a male with the highest category of spatial
proximity to the mother. However, there was a low to moderate level of multiple paternity within clutches, and for some clutches
probable sires could not be identified even though the most likely behavioural candidates were tested. Thus, nonterritorial
males or other males lacking strong social and spatial relationships with females may achieve some degree of reproductive
success. Analysis of mating success revealed that male success increased with body size, up to a point beyond which larger
size conferred no advantage.
Received: 7 January 1997 / Accepted after revision: 16 June 1997 相似文献
3.
Jürgen Gadau Pia J. Gertsch Jürgen Heinze Pekka Pamilo Bert Hölldobler 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,44(1):23-33
Multilocus DNA fingerprinting and microsatellite analysis were used to determine the number of queens and their mating frequencies
in colonies of the carpenter ant, Camponotus ligniperdus (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Only 1 of 61 analyzed queens was found to be double-mated and the population-wide effective mating
frequency was therefore 1.02. In the studied population, 8 of 21 mature field colonies (38%) contained worker, male, or virgin
queen genotypes which were not compatible with presumed monogyny and therefore suggested oligogyny, i.e., the cooccurrence
of several mutually intolerant queens within one colony. Estimated queen numbers in oligogynous colonies ranged between two
and five. According to the results of the genetic analysis, most of the queens coexisting in oligogynous colonies were not
closely related. Pleometrosis is very rare and queenless colonies adopt mated queens both in the laboratory and field. Therefore,
the most plausible explanation for the origin of oligogynous colonies in C. ligniperdus is the adoption of unrelated queens by orphaned mature colonies. The coexistence of unrelated, but mutually intolerant queens
in C. ligniperdus colonies demonstrates that oligogyny should be considered as a phenomenon distinct from polygyny.
Received: 18 December 1997 / Accepted after revision: 20 June 1998 相似文献
4.
Food access, brood size and filial cannibalism in the fantail darter, Etheostoma flabellare 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
We compared the occurrence of filial cannibalism in fed and starved male fantail darters (Etheostoma flabellare). All males in the experiment consumed eggs, and 56% ate all of their eggs. A male's initial body condition did not explain
the number of eggs that he ate. Neither did non-fed males eat more eggs than fed males. Fed males were able to maintain better
body condition during the experiment, but the change in body condition also depended on the number of eggs eaten. Thus, males
who ate more eggs were able to maintain better body condition.The most important determinant of whether or not a male ate
all of his eggs was his initial egg number. Males with small egg masses ate all of their eggs whereas males with large egg
masses were only partial cannibals. There was, however, no difference in the total number of eggs eaten by total and partial
cannibals. We conclude that eggs are only partially eaten for energetic reasons. We also suggest that small egg masses are
completely consumed because the costs of caring for a small egg mass may exceed the expected reproductive benefits of a small
egg mass.
Received: 26 January 1996 / Accepted after revision: 2 November 1996 相似文献
5.
Studies of the otariids (fur seals and sea lions), a highly sexually dimorphic group, have provided conflicting evidence of
differential maternal expenditure in male and female offspring and, thus, suggestions that they conform to predictions of
investment theory are equivocal. Since the mid-1970s, a diversity of research on Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) including studies of their reproductive ecology, lactation energetics, and foraging behaviour have been conducted at Bird
Island, South Georgia that have resulted in one of the more complete and diverse data sets for any species of otariid. These
long-term data were reviewed to determine whether there was any evidence to support that differential maternal expenditure
occurred in Antarctic fur seals. Most of the data examined were collected during five consecutive austral summers from 1988
through 1992 and included years in which local food resources were abundant and scarce. We were unable to detect differences
in the sex ratios of pups at birth or sex-biased differences in growth rates estimated from serial data, the number of foraging
trips made, the duration of attendance ashore, diving behaviour, suckling behaviour, or milk consumption in any year and in
the duration of foraging trips or age at weaning in 2 of 3 years. In addition, we found no evidence of greater reproductive
costs between mothers with sons or daughters relative to their reproductive performance the following year. In contrast, sex-biased
differences were only found in the duration of foraging trips in 1990, the age at weaning in 1988, and consistently in growth
rates estimated from cross-sectional data. We suggest that differential maternal expenditure does not occur in Antarctic fur
seals because male pups probably do not gain greater benefit from additional maternal expenditure than female pups. After
weaning, males experience a period of rapid juvenile growth over 3–4 years during which time body mass nearly trebles. This
growth will almost certainly be dependent upon available food resources then rather than on any maternal expenditure received
over the first 4 months of life and, thus, the assumptions of the Trivers and Willard hypothesis are probably invalid for
Antarctic fur seals.
Received: 10 July 1996 / Accepted after revision: 3 March 1997 相似文献
6.
Social monogamy and extra-pair fertilization in an Australian lizard, Tiliqua rugosa 总被引:3,自引:0,他引:3
C. Michael Bull Steven J. B. Cooper Ben C. Baghurst 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,44(1):63-72
This study investigates social monogamy in the Australian sleepy lizard, Tiliqua rugosa. At a 70-ha site near Mount Mary, South Australia, we radio tracked 55 adult female and 39 adult male lizards during their
spring activity periods. Each lizard was observed in 1–5 years. Females were observed with a single male partner on an average
of 10.8 days per year, although in 17.3% of cases, females were observed on 2 or fewer days with a male. The most intense
pairing period each year was 15 September–15 November when females were with male partners on an average of 36% of observation
days. Partnerships lasted an average of 43.3 days each year. After mating in early November, the pairs separated. Observations
of females pairing with other males were rare. Most males (82%) were also consistently monogamous, although 7 were observed
pairing with 2 females within one season. To investigate paternity, we allowed 21 gravid females to give birth to 42 offspring
in the laboratory. We determined genotypes at five polymorphic microsatellite DNA loci for the females, their male partners
and their offspring. Four litters (19%) and 6 of the offspring from those litters (14.3%) showed evidence of extra-pair fertilization
(EPF). Although the sample sizes are small, females of polygynous males were more likely to experience EPF.
Received: 22 February 1998 / Accepted after revision: 23 May 1998 相似文献
7.
An individual-oriented model is constructed which simulates the collective foraging behaviour of a colony of honey-bees,
Apis mellifera. Each bee follows the same set of behavioural rules. Each rule consists of a set of conditions followed by the behavioural
act to be performed if the conditions are fulfilled. The set of conditions comprises the state of external information available
to the bee (e.g. the dancing of other bees) and internal information variables (like memorised location of a food source and
homing motivation). The rules are partly observational (i.e. they capture the observable regularities between the present
external information and the individual bee's behaviour), and partly involve hypothesised internal-state variables (e.g. abandoning
tendency and homing motivation), because no observable (physiological) aspect has as yet been detected in the bee which correlates
with changes in the internal motivation. Our aim is to obtain a set of rules that is necessary and sufficient for the generation
of the collective foraging behaviour observed in real bees. We simulated an experiment performed by Seeley et al. in which
a colony of honey-bees chooses between two nectar sources of different profitabilities which are switched at intervals. A
good fit between observed and simulated collective forager patterns was obtained when the model included rules in which the
bees (1) relied on the information acquired from previous flights to a source (e.g. profitability and time of day when the
source was found), (2) used positional information obtained by attending recruitment dances and (3) did not abandon a (temporarily)
deteriorated source too fast or too slowly. The significance of the following issues is discussed: the role of internal and
external information, source profitability, the spatial precision of the dance communication, the ability to search for a
source after the source position has been transmitted, the tendency to abandon a deteriorated source, and the concepts of
scout, recruit, (un)employed forager, and foraging history.
Received: 26 January 1998 / Accepted after revision: 16 May 1998 相似文献
8.
Corey R. Freeman-Gallant 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(6):395-400
Empirical relationships between parentage and male parental care are commonly interpreted in the context of life-history
models that consider increased offspring survivorship as the only benefit of paternal effort. However, indirect benefits associated
with male care can also influence a male's response to cuckoldry: if females allocate paternity according to their prior experience
with male parental care, it may pay for males to provision extra-pair young in early broods. Here, I assess the relationship
between first-brood parentage and paternal care in a population of Savannah sparrows (Passerculussandwichensis) where a male's fertilization success in the second brood appears to be influenced by his prior parental performance. Based
on the multi-locus DNA fingerprinting of 17 first broods, male feeding effort was influenced by parentage (percent of brood
resulting from within-pair fertilizations) but not by brood size, male mating status (monogamous versus polygynous), timing
of breeding (hatching date), structural size (wing length) or condition (mass). Males provided more care to broods that contained
few within-pair young. This result supports the idea that males provision young to increase their future mating success, but
alternative hypotheses involving male quality and timing of breeding cannot be excluded.
Received: 13 August 1996 / Accepted after revision: 22 February 1997 相似文献
9.
Jill M. Goldstein Glen E. Woolfenden Jack P. Hailman 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1998,44(1):15-22
Prebreeders of the Florida scrub-jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens) are less likely to be found on their natal territories with a same-sex stepparent than with parents or an opposite-sex stepparent.
We tested two models that had been proposed to account for this sexual asymmetry. The dominance hypothesis states that stepparents
perceive same-sex prebreeders as competitors, primarily for a mate, so behave aggressively toward them. The pair-formation
hypothesis states that prebreeders remain home to pair eventually with the opposite-sex stepparent. Predictions from these
two models were tested by analyses from a quarter-century of records on a study population at Archbold Biological Station
and by new behavioral field observations at the Station. Results clearly rejected the latter and strongly supported the former
hypothesis. No prediction from the pair-formation hypothesis was confirmed: no pairing by a prebreeder of either sex has ever
occurred with a stepparent; remaining home was equally frequent in age-one males with stepmothers and genetic mothers, and
in females with stepfathers and genetic fathers; and the same results were found in age-two prebreeders. By contrast, the
data strongly supported the dominance hypothesis. Field data showed higher aggression rates by stepfathers to male prebreeders
and stepmothers to female prebreeders than by parents to their same-sex genetic offspring. Fewer age-one males remained home
with a stepfather than with the genetic father, and the same was found for age-one females with a stepmother and genetic mother;
at age two, the effect occurred only in female prebreeders. The two hypotheses make different predictions about prebreeders
with two stepparents versus with both parents, thus providing a critical test. The dominance hypothesis correctly predicted
decreased duration at home by age-one males and females; data for age-two females were in the direction of predicted difference
but not significant; and, as in other tests, no effect was found for age-two males. We propose that age-two male prebreeders
remain home despite elevated aggression from stepfathers because these prebreeders retain the possibility of budding from
or inheriting the natal territory.
Received: 16 July 1997 / Accepted after revision: 26 June 1998 相似文献
10.
Marc Naguib 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(6):385-393
Male territorial song birds are usually spaced far apart and most often hear conspecific song after it has been degraded
by propagation through the environment. Their ability to use the degradation of songs to assess the distance of a singing
rival without approaching (called ranging) presumably increases the efficiency of defending a territory. In order to assess
degradation in a song the receiver needs to compare the characteristics of the received song to its characteristics at the
source or at different distances. Earlier experiments on ranging in species with song repertoires have suggested that prior
familiarity with the particular song type is necessary for ranging. Here I show that male Carolina wrens (Thryothorus ludovicianus) can use either temporal or spectral characteristics for ranging song types which they were unlikely to have heard previously.
Playbacks consisting of only one song prevented subjects' close-range experience with the loudspeaker, and flights beyond
the loudspeaker provided direct evidence for over-assessment of distance when songs were degraded. Because ranging of songs
was not affected by the degree of familiarity with the song type, this experiment provides no evidence that song repertoires
hinder ranging in Carolina wrens, as suggested by Morton's ranging hypothesis. Instead, at least approximate ranging of songs
is evidently possible by assessment of degradation in general features of a species' songs.
Received: 9 August 1996 / Accepted after revision: 15 February 1997 相似文献
11.
Altered responses to female odors in parasitized male mice: neuromodulatory mechanisms and relations to female choice 总被引:5,自引:0,他引:5
M. Kavaliers D. D. Colwell K.-P. Ossenkopp T. S. Perrot-Sinal 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(6):373-384
There is accumulating evidence that females may preferentially select parasite-free or -resistant males. Minimal attention
has, however, been paid to the mate preferences and responses of the parasitized male hosts themselves. Here, we considered
the effects of parasitic infection on male host mate responses, the neuromodulatory correlates of these responses, and the
relations of these responses to female mate choice. Using an odor “preference” test, we examined the effects of different
stages of an acute, sub-clinical infection with the naturally occurring, enteric, single host, protozoan parasite, Eimeria vermiformis, on the responses of male mice, Mus musculus domesticus, to the odors of estrous females along with the responses of uninfected females to the parasitized males. At 4 days post-infection
(non-infective, pre-patent stage) E. vermiformis-infected male mice showed a significantly decreased preference for the odors of estrous females, whereas at 10 days post-infection
(infective, patent stage) infected males showed a significantly increased preference for the odors of estrous females. Parasitized
males displayed no significant changes in their responses to the odors of non-estrous females, supporting effects on the reproductively
related responses of the host. In parallel, estrous females displayed a reduced interest in the odors of infected males. Least
interest was expressed in the odors of the patent, infective males, consistent with the avoidance of contagion. Using selective
opioid peptide receptor agonists and antagonists we found evidence that enhanced kappa opioid peptide (e.g., dynorphin) activity
was related to the decreased sexual interest of the pre-infective males, while augmented delta opioid peptide (e.g., enkephalin)
activity was associated with the enhanced responses of the infective males to females. We further showed that acute kappa
opiate administration reduced the responses of uninfected males to females and that uninfected females displayed modified
responses to the odors of uninfected males subject to acute modifications of opioid activity. We suggest that these differential
shifts in endogenous opioid activity in the parasitized males are associated with and, or related to alterations in neuro-immune
and endocrine functions. These findings show that parasitic infection can have, depending on the stage of infection and associated
neuromodulatory changes, either significant facilitatory or inhibitory effects on male host preferences for and responses
to females.
Received: 22 April 1996 / Accepted after revision: 15 March 1997 相似文献
12.
Testis size variation in frogs: testing the alternatives 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Sharon B. Emerson 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,41(4):227-235
While sperm competition may be a major factor affecting relative testis size in vertebrates as a whole, additional hypotheses
have not been given much attention in frogs. This is important because sperm competition is relatively uncommon in frogs and
relative testis size varies in frogs that do not have multiple-male breeding systems. This paper tests two additional hypotheses
for differences in relative testis size among frogs: relative clutch size (number of eggs/snout vent length) and androgen
level. Testis size was measured in 90 species of frogs belonging to five families. Relative testis size was found to be positively
correlated with relative clutch size in species that lack sperm competition. Mean androgen levels of species also positively
covaried with relative testis size. However, there was no correlation between relative testis size and level of male agonistic
behavior among species, despite other work indicating that testosterone levels are positively correlated with agonistic behavior
in at least some species. These findings suggest that a number of factors in addition to sperm competition are important in
the evolution of testis size in male frogs.
Received: 17 January 1997 / Accepted after revision: 23 June 1997 相似文献
13.
Multiple-queen (polygyne) colonies of the introduced fire ant Solenopsis invicta present a paradox for kin selection theory. Egg-laying queens within these societies are, on average, unrelated to one another,
and the numbers of queens per colony are high, so that workers appear to raise new sexuals that are no more closely related
to them than are random individuals in the population. This paradox could be resolved if workers discriminate between related
and unrelated nestmate sexuals in important fitness-related contexts. This study examines the possibility of such nepotism
using methods that combine the following features: (1) multiple relevant behavioral assays, (2) colonies with an unmanipulated
family structure, (3) multiple genetic markers with no known phenotypic effects, and (4) a statistical technique for distinguishing
between nepotism and potentially confounding phenomena. We estimated relatedness between interactants in polygyne S. invicta colonies in two situations, workers tending egg-laying queens and workers feeding maturing winged queens. In neither case
did we detect a significant positive value of relatedness that would implicate nepotism. We argue that the non-nepotistic
strategies displayed by these ants reflect historical selection pressures experienced by native populations, in which nestmate
queens are highly related to one another. The markedly different genetic structure in native populations may favor the operation
of stronger higher-level selection that effectively opposes weaker individual-level selection for nepotistic interactions
within nests.
Received: 28 June 1996 / Accepted after revision: 6 October 1996 相似文献
14.
Control of reproduction in social insect colonies: individual and collective relatedness preferences in the paper wasp, Polistes annularis 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
David C. Queller J. M. Peters Carlos R. Solís Joan E. Strassmann 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1997,40(1):3-16
Social insect colonies often have one or a few queens. How these queens maintain their reproductive monopoly, when other
colony members could gain by sharing in the reproduction, is not generally known. DNA microsatellite genotyping is used to
determine reproductive interests of various classes of colony members in the paper wasp, Polistes annularis. The relatedness estimates show that the best outcome for most individuals is to be the reproductive egg-layer. For workers,
this depends on the sex of offspring: they should prefer to lay their own male eggs, but are indifferent if the queen lays
the female eggs. The next-best choice is usually to support the current queen. As a rule, subordinates and workers should
prefer the current queen to reproduce over other candidates (though subordinates have no strong preference for the queen over
other subordinates, and workers may prefer other workers as a source of male eggs). This result supports the theory that reproductive
monopoly stems from the collective preferences of non-reproductives, who suppress each other in favor of the queen. However,
we reject the general hypothesis of collective worker control in this species because its predictions about who should succeed
after the death of the present queen are not upheld. The first successor is a subordinate foundress even though workers should
generally prefer a worker successor. If all foundresses have died, an older worker succeeds as queen, in spite of a collective
worker preference for a young worker. The results support the previous suggestion that age serves as a conventional cue serving
to reduce conflict over queen succession.
Received: 3 May 1996 / Accepted after revision: 22 September 1996 相似文献
15.
During their seasonal runs in the Okavango and other freshwater bodies in southern Africa, the sharptooth catfish, Clarias gariepinus, specialises on the bulldog, Marcusenius macrolepidotus, as its main prey. We examined whether the catfish can locate bulldogs by detecting their pulse-type electric organ discharges
(EODs). The electrosensory threshold for single-cycle, monopolar square-wave pulses was exceedingly low (down to 13 μVp–p/cm for 4-ms pulses) in trained, food-rewarded sharptooth catfish (n=4), confirming the results of Lissmann and Machin who were, however, unable to identify a biological function. Other stimulus
pulse waveforms (single-cycle, monopolar as well as bipolar sine-wave pulses) were also effective stimuli according to their
spectral low-frequency energy contents (0– 30 Hz). Male bulldogs display an EOD pulse approximately 10× the duration of female
EODs (≈0.5 ms). The C. gariepinus threshold for field-recorded playbacks of a male bulldog EOD (of long duration) was 103 μVp–p/cm, whereas the brief female and juvenile EODs were not detected (using intensities of natural EODs). EODs of other mormyrids
were detected when either monopolar or of long duration. Signal source amplitude increased linearly with standard length (SL)
in bulldogs. Signal reach, as calculated from signal source amplitude and receiver sensitivity, is up to 150 cm for a large
male bulldog (SL 27.5 cm), and 83 cm for a male that has just turned sexually mature (SL 12.6 cm). Therefore, most bulldogs
eaten by catfish are probably male, in agreement with the size distribution of bulldogs found in catfish stomachs. These results
suggest that sharptooth catfish rely heavily on their acute electrical sense during hunting, and an important function for
electroreception in an African catfish has been identified.
Received: 13 December 1999 / Revised: 20 April 2000 / Accepted: 20 May 2000 相似文献