The technology windows-of-opportunity for marine oil spill response as related to oil weathering and operations

This paper identifies and estimates time periods as ‘windows-of-opportunity’ where specific response methods, technologies, equipment, or products are more effective in clean-up operations for several oils. These windows have been estimated utilizing oil weathering and technology performance data as tools to optimize effectiveness in marine oil spill response decision-making. The windows will also provide data for action or no-action alternatives. Crude oils and oil products differ greatly in physical and chemical properties, and these properties tend to change significantly during and after a spill with oil aging (weathering). Such properties have a direct bearing on oil recovery operations, influencing the selection of response methods and technologies applicable for clean up, including their effectiveness and capacity, which can influence the time and cost of operations and the effects on natural resources.The changes and variations in physical and chemical properties over time can be modeled using data from weathering studies of specific oils. When combined with performance data for various equipment and materials, tested over a range of weathering stages of oils, windows-of-opportunity can be estimated for spill response decision-making. Under experimental conditions discussed in this paper, windows-of-opportunity have been identified and estimated for four oils (for which data are available) under a given set of representative environmental conditions. These ‘generic’ windows have been delineated for the general categories of spill response namely: (1) dispersants, (2) in situ burning, (3) booms, (4) skimmers, (5) sorbents, and (6) oil-water separators. To estimate windows-of-opportunity for the above technologies (except booms), the IKU Oil Weathering Model was utilized to predict relationships—with 5 m s⁻¹ wind speed and seawater temperatures of 15°C.The window-of-opportunity for the dispersant (Corexit 9527^®) with Alaska North Slope (ANS) oil was estimated from laboratory data to be the first 26 h. A period of ‘reduced’ dispersibility, was estimated to last from 26–120 h. The oil was considered to be no longer dispersible if treated for the first time after 120 h. The most effective time window for dispersing Bonnic Light was 0–2 h, the time period of reduced dispersibility was 2–4 h, and after 4 h the oil was estimated to be no longer dispersible. These windows-of-opportunity are based on the most effective use of a dispersant estimated from laboratory dispersant effectiveness studies using fresh and weathered oils. Laboratory dispersant effectiveness data cannot be directly utilized to predict dispersant performance during spill response, however, laboratory results are of value for estimating viscosity and pour point limitations and for guiding the selection of an appropriate product during contingency planning and response. In addition, the window of opportunity for a dispersant may be lengthened if the dispersant contains an emulsion breaking agent or multiple applications of dispersant are utilized. Therefore, a long-term emulsion breaking effect may increase the effectiveness of a dispersant and lengthen the window-of-opportunity.The window-of-opportunity of in situ burning (based upon time required for an oil to form an emulsion with 50% water content) was estimated to be approximately 0–36 h for ANS oil and 0–1 h for Bonnie Light oil after being spilled. The estimation of windows-of-opportunity for offshore booms is constrained by the fact that many booms available on the market undergo submergence at speeds of less than 2 knots. The data suggest that booms with buoyancy to weight ratios less than 8:1 may submerge at speeds within the envelope in which they could be expected to operate. This submergence is an indication of poor wave conformance, caused by reduction of freeboard and reserve net buoyancy within the range of operation. The windows-of-opportunity for two selected skimming principles (disk and brush), were estimated using modeled oil viscosity data for BCF 17 and BCF 24 in combination with experimental performance data developed as a function of viscosity. These windows were estimated to be within 3–10 h (disk skimmer) and after 10 h (brush skimmer) for BCF 17. Whereas for BCF 24, it is within 2–3 d (disk skimmer) and after 3 d (brush skimmer).For sorbents, an upper viscosity limit for an effective and practical use has in studies been found to be approximately 15,000 cP, which is the viscosity range of some Bunker C oils. Using viscosity data for the relative heavy oils, BCF 17 and BCF 24 (API gravity 17 and 24), the time windows for a sorbent (polyamine flakes) was estimated to be 0–4 and 0–10 d, respectively. With BCF 24, the effectiveness of polyamine flakes, was reduced to 50% after 36 h, although it continued to adsorb for up to 10 d. For BCF 17, the effectiveness of polyamine flakes was reduced to 50% after 12 h, although it continued to adsorb for up to 4 d. The windows-of-opportunity for several centrifuged separators based upon the time period to close the density gap between weathered oils and seawater to less than 0.025 g ml⁻¹ (which is expected to be an end-point for effective use of centrifugal separation technology), were estimated to be 0–18 (ANS) and 0–24 h (Bonnie Light) after the spill. Utilizing the windows-of-opportunity concept, the combined information from a dynamic oil weathering model and a performance technology data base can become a decision-making tool; identifying and defining the windows of effectiveness of different response methods and equipment under given environmental conditions. Specific research and development needs are identified as related to further delineation of windows-of-opportunity.     

Real time oil spill forecasting during an experimental oil spill in the arctic ice

The oil spill trajectory and weathering model OILMAP was used to forecast spill trajectories for an experimental oil spill in the Barents Sea marginal ice zone. The model includes capabilities to enter graphically and display environmental data governing oil behavior: ice fields, tidal and background current fields, and wind time series, as well as geographical map information. Forecasts can also be updated from observations such as airplane overflights. The model performed well when wind was ‘off-ice’ and speeds were relatively low (3–7 m s⁻¹), with ice cover between 60 and 90%. Errors in forecasting the trajectory could be directly attributed to errors in the wind forecasts. Appropriate drift parameters for oil and ice were about 25% of the wind speed, with an Ekman veering angle of 35° to the right. Ice sheets were typically 1 m thick. When the wind became ‘on-ice’, wind speeds increased to about 10 m s⁻¹ and trajectory simulations began to diverge from the observations, with observed drift parameters being 1.5% of the wind speed, with a 60° veering angle. Although simple assumptions for the large scale movement of oil in dense ice fields appear appropriate, the importance of good wind forecasts as a basis for reliable trajectory prognoses cannot be overstated.     

Overview and future trends in oil spill remote sensing

Remote sensing has great potential to provide data to improve oil spill response efforts. There are a number of sensors available that have been proven capable of detecting oil on water and measuring some of its properties. There is no single sensor that provides all the data needed, and hence a combination of sensors must be used. Even if finances and aircraft load capacity were unlimited, there are still many parameters of an oil slick that cannot be measured by remote sensing. This paper describes the cyrrently available sensors and their method of operation and outlines some new developments that have the potential to increase the amount of data available from an airborne remote sensing operation.     

Remote sensing systems considerations and user requirements for oil spill surveillance

New communications technology coupled with using GIS and GPS technology gives an opportunity to bridge the gap from the sensor-equipped aircraft to the user of the information. Finally, remote sensing information can be delivered in a form that is tailored to the needs of the end user. The challenge today is to keep to simple systems that make sense operationally rather than try to integrate every new technology.     

The role of wind and emulsification in modelling oil spill and surface drifter trajectories

Laboratory and field data suggest that the movement of spilled oil at sea is in general a three-dimensional phenomenon in physical space, whereas trajectories of undrogued surface drifters are more susceptible to two-dimensional analysis. These conclusions are consistent with the intermittent failure of two-dimensional surface models to simulate the trajectories of spilled oil, although such models may be more successful with data from surface drifters. A physical explanation is presented, and a model that incorporates the key portions of the governing processes is described and tested against data from experimental oil spills at sea. Observations suggest that emulsified surface oil will drift down wind at speeds in excess of 3% of the windspeed. When surface turbulence drives oil subsurface for a significant fraction of time, however, net transport speeds are considerably less and significantly to the right of the wind in the northern hemisphere.     

COASTMAP: An integrated monitoring and modeling system to support oil spill response

One of the most difficult tasks in oil spill response modeling is to provide accurate estimates of the currents and winds during the spill event. This is typically done in an ad-hoc, subjective manner combining very limited field observations with simplified hydrodynamic and meteorological models. As an alternative an integrated environmental monitoring and modeling system, called COASTMAP, is presented. COASTMAP allows the user to collect, manipulate, display, and archive real-time environmental data through an embedded geographic information system and environmental data management tools; to perform simulations with a suite of environmental models (e.g. hydrodynamics, meteorological) in order to predict dynamics in the operational area and to assimilate real-time data into the models to allow hindcasting, nowcasting and forecasting. COASTMAP, operational on a personal computer, is controlled by mouse/keyboard through a series of menus and uses color graphics to present model predictions (plots, graphs, animations) and the results of data analyses. The software is designed using a shell based architecture making application to any geographic location simple and straightforward.In the present paper, COASTMAP is linked with OILMAP to provide a fully operational, real-time system that allows prediction of circulation, winds and oil spill trajectory and fate for estuarine and coastal sea areas. System performance is illustrated by the simulation of the trajectory of oil tracking buoys during two experiments performed in the lower west passage of Narragansett Bay. Simulation results using several forecast procedures, with/without real-time data, are presented.     

溢油监测技术在石油石化企业环境风险防控中的应用

针对石油石化企业的溢油风险,提出企业在厂区雨水系统、外排口、涉水生产设施、环境敏感受体、溢油事故应急处置5类场景下的溢油监测需求,总结了溢油监测技术的类型和特点,介绍了可见光、红外、紫外、荧光、高光谱、微波辐射、雷达、电磁能量吸收等溢油监测技术的应用现状和优缺点。提出:企业溢油监测系统可分为企业内部溢油风险分级管控监测、企业边界的溢油风险报警监测、敏感环境监视的风险预警监测、溢油事故应急救援的溢油处置监测4个层次的运行模式。     

Maersk Navigator oil spill in the great channel (Andaman Sea) in January 1993 and its environmental impact

Observations on oil slicks, tar residues and dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons (DPH) shortly after the oil spill resulting from the tanker accident in January 1993 showed negligible impact on the Indian EEZ of the Great Channel (Andaman Sea). DPH were between 0.31 and 1.85 μg l⁻¹ in the area examined. Tar residues were absent throughout the study area. Prevailing NE wind with resultant SW surface current appears to have pushed the oil patches out towards the open Indian Ocean.A follow-up survey of the same area was carried out in September-October 1993 and observations similar to those made during the earlier survey were recorded. The zooplankton biomass had increased considerably during the interval between the two surveys, but this was probably due to seasonal changes and natural variability.The spill did not cause any perceptible impact on the environment.     

Response to marine pollution by oil and other harmful substances in Germany

The development of the German combating strategy on the basis of the eco-morphological and economic conditions of the German coast is described. Since 1980, a total of 190 million DM has been spent for the procurement of 22 oil recovery vessels (8 of which are employed in high-sea operation), 2 aircraft for an airborne surveillance system, as well as comprehensive equipment for land-based oil pollution control. Planned investments will be centred on the re-equipment of two vessels and the construction of a new recovery vessel for employment in accidents involving chemicals.     

关于红外光度法测定水中油类的讨论

结合实际工作经验，对红外光度法测定石油类和动植物油(GB／T16488-1996)所规定的仪器、试剂等进行了进一步的探讨，并提出操作建议。     

电站油炉改烧水煤浆技术在广东地区的应用

介绍了电站油炉改烧水煤浆技术的背景，对水煤浆技术，水煤浆的环保特性及其发展进行了综述，分析了广东地区已改烧水煤浆的燃油电厂的运行状况，并展望了该技术在广东地区的发展前景。     

Oil uptake and depuration in oysters after use of dispersants in shallow water in El Salvador

Dispersants were used in shallow water (4–6 m) and in the surf zone at a small spill (400 bbls) of Venezuelan Recon at the port of Acajutla, El Salvador in June 1994. Subtidal oysters were collected 1 and 4 weeks post-spill to determine the degree of exposure of benthic resources to the dispersed oil. Two samples of oysters from the area of dispersed oil contained total PAHs of 147 and 164 ppm, dry weight, compared with background levels less than 1.0 ppm. Four weeks post-spill, PAH levels decreased by 94–98%. Half-lives for individual PAH compounds were estimated and were generally consistent with results from laboratory experiments. Monitoring of bivalves during dispersant applications can document the areal and vertical extent of dispersed oil in the water column.     

两相流固液分离技术在电厂水处理中的应用

简要叙述了目前电厂水处理中几种固液分离技术的应用现状和使用效果，重点介绍两相流固液分离新技术的运行机理，工业性试验，电厂废水资源化回用处理示范工程以及对电厂现有水源水处理设施的改造情况，并对新建电厂水源水处理和废水资源化回用处理设计提出了一些建议。     

Solid waste management practices and review of recovery and recycling operations in Turkey

This paper provides a general overview of solid waste data and management practices employed in Turkey during the last decade. Municipal solid waste statistics and management practices including waste recovery and recycling initiatives have been evaluated. Detailed data on solid waste management practices including collection, recovery and disposal, together with the results of cost analyses, have been presented. Based on these evaluations basic cost estimations on collection and sorting of recyclable solid waste in Turkey have been provided. The results indicate that the household solid waste generation in Turkey, per capita, is around 0.6 kg/year, whereas municipal solid waste generation is close to 1 kg/year. The major constituents of municipal solid waste are organic in nature and approximately 1/4 of municipal solid waste is recyclable. Separate collection programmes for recyclable household waste by more than 60 municipalities, continuing in excess of 3 years, demonstrate solid evidence for public acceptance and continuing support from the citizens. Opinion polls indicate that more than 80% of the population in the project regions is ready and willing to participate in separate collection programmes. The analysis of output data of the Material Recovery Facilities shows that, although paper, including cardboard, is the main constituent, the composition of recyclable waste varies strongly by the source or the type of collection point.     

Odor compounds in waste gas emissions from agricultural operations and food industries

In the last decades, large-scale agricultural operations and food industries have increased. These operations generate numerous types of odors. The reduction of land areas available for isolation of agricultural and food processing industrial operations from the public area and the increase in sensitivity and demand of the general public for a clean and pleasant environment have forced all of these industries to control odor emissions and toxic air pollutants. To develop environmentally sound, sustainable agricultural and food industrial operations, it is necessary to integrate research that focuses on modern analytical techniques and latest sensory technology of measurement and evaluation of odor and pollution, together with a fundamental knowledge of factors that are the basic units contributing to the production of odor and pollutants. Without a clear understanding of what odor is, how to measure it, and where it originates, it will be difficult to control the odor. The present paper reviews the available information regarding odor emissions from agricultural operations and food industries by giving an overview about odor problems, odor detection and quantification, and identifying the sources and the mechanisms that contribute to the odor emissions. Finally, ways of reducing or controlling the odor problem are discussed.     

Environmental Assessments in the Oil and Gas Industry

The general public, government regulators, and environmental organizations are increasingly demanding industries to reduce their environmental impacts and report progress. This in turn resulted in numerous requirements for reporting environmental data. Environmental assessments are a useful tool in gathering and documenting this data. The assessments also assist decision makers to quantify impacts of their activities and plan for appropriate mitigation measures. There are different types of environmental assessments, each having specific purpose(s) and addressing specific audience(s). This paper gives an overview of common environmental concerns associated with oil and gas industry and shares insights on types of environmental assessments that are widely used. It discusses general methodologies to define the scope, approach, measurement standards, and reporting. Potential challenges encountered in conducting these assessments in an international arena and under a wide variety of regulatory requirements are addressed. Practical approach in execution of these assessments is described here, and strategy in dealing with the challenges is presented.     

多孔介质中柴油的挥发和残留特性

研究了柴油在多孔介质中的挥发、淋溶和残留特性.实验结果表明:亚轴土中柴油挥发率最高,达22.1%;细砂次之,为19.8%;粗砂最低,为12.4%;初始阶段淋溶液中柴油质量浓度较高,随后逐渐减小并趋于稳定;淋溶状态下,粗砂、细砂和亚轴土中柴油释放速率依次降低;挥发和淋溶后,粗砂、细砂和亚轴土中的柴油残留量为30.0 ～ ...     

水利水电建设中河流生态用水理论与方法研究

国内外研究表明,除了水质,生态用水也是维持生态系统健康发展的重要因素。因此,在水资源配置中保证一定量的生态用水是保护生态环境的重要措施。生态用水具有时空尺度和阈值范围,而人类大规模的水电开发则会造成其时空尺度的改变,甚至生态阈限难以被满足。统计数字表明,近5年来我国新建水电站下泄生态流量的不满足率达到57％。我国目前急需考虑的生态用水政策是：尽快建立河流最小生态流量的相关标准,制定河流生态用水配套法律法规;同时,通过跨流域调水等水段,加强生态环境需水的宏观调控。建议最小生态用水量不应小于工程所在河流控制断面多年平均流量的10％,当多年平均流量大于80m^3／s时不小于5％;同时根据河流的不同生态环境功能,应积极开展多方法、多方案比选。     

Efficiency of waste management in municipalities and the importance of waste separation

Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management - The European Union emphasises the need to sever the link between economic growth, resource consumption and waste production and has set targets to...