Major osmolyte changes during oocyte hydration of a clupeocephalan marine benthophil: Atlantic herring (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Clupea harengus</Emphasis>)

The major inorganic and organic osmolytes responsible for hydrating the oocytes during pre-ovulatory meiotic maturation in autumn- and spring-spawning stocks of Atlantic herring are examined. Despite the ovulated eggs of spring-spawning herring being 1.6- to 2-fold larger than the autumn-spawning stock, the GSI (27 ± 3%) and degree of oocyte hydration (70–72% water) were similar. Normalising the data with respect to dry mass revealed that the physiological mechanisms underlying the maturational influx of water were the same for both classes of egg. Cl⁻, K⁺ and P_i together with a small pool of free amino acids (FAA) represented the driving forces for oocyte hydration. K⁺ (autumn and spring) and P_i (spring) maintained their concentrations in the ovulated eggs, while all other ions, including Cl⁻, Na⁺, NH₄ ⁺ and Mg²⁺ were significantly diluted. In contrast the FAA concentration increased during the hydration process. Amongst the inorganic ions, Cl⁻ showed the greatest increase in the ovulated eggs. The FAA content doubled from 1.5 to 3.3% of dry mass during oocyte hydration and accounted for 29% of the calculated ovoplasmic osmolality in the ovulated eggs from both autumn- and spring-spawners. This significant osmotic effect of the small pool of FAA was due to the low water content of the benthic eggs. The differential movement of the inorganic and organic osmolytes that underly oocyte hydration in Atlantic herring are discussed in relation to current models of transmembrane ion flux.     

Effect of temperature on seawater desalination-water quality analyses for desalinated seawater for its use as drinking and irrigation water

The effect of feed seawater temperature on the quality of product water in a reverse osmosis process was investigated using typical seawater at Urla Bay, Izmir region, Turkey. The tests were carried out at different feed seawater temperatures (11–23°C) using two RO modules with one membrane element each. A number of variables, including pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, salinity, rejection percentage of a number of ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃ ⁻, and SO₄ ²⁻), and the levels of boron and turbidities in collected permeates, were measured. The suitability of these permeates as irrigation and drinking water was checked by comparison with water quality standards.     

Tracing the factors responsible for arsenic enrichment in groundwater of the middle Gangetic Plain,India: a source identification perspective

Arsenic contamination in groundwater is of increasing concern because of its high toxicity and widespread occurrence. This study is an effort to trace the factors responsible for arsenic enrichment in groundwater of the middle Gangetic Plain of India through major ion chemistry, arsenic speciation, sediment grain-size analyses, and multivariate statistical techniques. The study focuses on the distinction between the contributions of natural weathering and anthropogenic inputs of arsenic with its spatial distribution and seasonal variations in the plain of the state Bihar of India. Thirty-six groundwater and one sediment core samples were collected in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. Various graphical plots and statistical analysis were carried out using chemical data to enable hydrochemical evaluation of the aquifer system based on the ionic constituents, water types, hydrochemical facies, and factors controlling groundwater quality. Results suggest that the groundwater is characterized by slightly alkaline pH with moderate to strong reducing nature. The general trend of various ions was found to be Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺ > NH₄ ⁺; and HCO₃ ⁻ > Cl⁻ > SO₄ ²⁻ > NO₃ ⁻ > PO₄ ³⁻ > F⁻ in both seasons. Spatial and temporal variations showed a slightly higher arsenic concentration in the pre-monsoon period (118 μg/L) than in the post-monsoon period (114 μg/L). Results of correlation analyses indicate that arsenic contamination is strongly associated with high concentrations of Fe, PO₄ ³⁻, and NH₄ ⁺ but relatively low Mn concentrations. Further, the enrichment of arsenic is more prevalent in the proximity of the Ganges River, indicating that fluvial input is the main source of arsenic. Grain size analyses of sediment core samples revealed clay (fine-grained) strata between 4.5 and 7.5 m deep that govern the vertical distribution of arsenic. The weathering of carbonate and silicate minerals along with surface-groundwater interactions, ion exchange, and anthropogenic activities seem to be the processes governing groundwater contamination, including with arsenic. Although the percentage of wells exceeding the permissible limit (50 μg/L) was less (47%) than that reported in Bangladesh and West Bengal, the percentage contribution of toxic As(III) to total arsenic concentration is quite high (66%). This study is vital considering that groundwater is the exclusive source of drinking water in the region and not only makes situation alarming but also calls for immediate attention.     

Evaluation of groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking,domestic, and agricultural uses in the Banana Plain (Mbanga,Njombe, Penja) of the Cameroon Volcanic Line

Groundwater quality of the Banana Plain (Mbanga, Njombe, Penja—Cameroon) was assessed for its suitability for drinking, domestic, and agricultural uses. A total of 67 groundwater samples were collected from open wells, springs, and boreholes. Samples were analyzed for physicochemical properties, major ions, and dissolved silica. In 95% of groundwater samples, calcium is the dominant cation, while sodium dominates in 5% of the samples. Eighty percent of the samples have HCO₃ as major anion, and in 20%, NO₃ is the major anion. Main water types in the study area are CaHCO₃, CaMgHCO₃, CaNaHCO₃, and CaNaNO₃ClHCO₃. CO₂-driven weathering of silicate minerals followed by cation exchange seemingly controls largely the concentrations of major ions in the groundwaters of this area. Nitrate, sulfate, and chloride concentrations strongly express the impact of anthropogenic activities (agriculture and domestic activities) on groundwater quality. Sixty-four percent of the waters have nitrate concentrations higher than the drinking water limit. Also limiting groundwater use for potable and domestic purposes are contents of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ and HCO₃ ⁻ and total hardness (TH) that exceed World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Irrigational suitability of groundwaters in the study area was also evaluated, and results show that all the samples are fit for irrigation. Groundwater quality in the Banana Plain is impeded by natural geology and anthropogenic activities, and proper groundwater management strategies are necessary to protect sustainably this valuable resource.     

Human risk assessment of As,Cd, Cu and Zn in the abandoned metal mine site

The cancer risk and the non-cancer hazard index for inhabitants exposed to As, Cd, Cu and Zn in the soils and stream waters of the abandoned Songcheon Au–Ag mine area were evaluated. Mean concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in agricultural soils were 230, 2.5, 120, 160, and 164 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. Mean concentrations of As, Cd and Zn of the water in the stream where drinking water was drawn was 246 μg L⁻¹, 161 μg L⁻¹ and 3899 μg L⁻¹, respectively. These levels are significantly higher than the permissible levels for drinking water quality recommended by Korea and WHO. The resulting human health risks to farmers who inhabited the surrounding areas due to drinking water were summarized as follows: (1) the non-cancer health hazard indices showed that the toxic risk due to As and Cd in drinking water were 10 and 4 times, respectively, greater than those induced by the safe average daily dosages of the respective chemicals. (2) the cancer risk of As for exposed individuals through the drinking water pathway was 5 in 1000, exceeded the acceptable risk of 1 in 10,000 set for regulatory purposes.     

Inhibition of Na+/K+-ATPase and of active ion-transport functions in the gills of the shore crab Carcinus maenas induced by cadmium

Inhibition of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase from gill plasma membranes of the shore crab Carcinus maenas by cadmium was investigated and compared with inhibitory effects by known antagonists (ouabain and Ca²⁺). For comparative considerations the Cd²⁺-inhibition of the enzyme from dog kidney was also tested. Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase from dog kidney and from crab gill differed greatly in sensitivity against ouabain. The inhibition constant K _i of the dog enzyme amounted to 9.1 × 10⁻⁷ mol l⁻¹, i.e. more than 300-fold smaller than the K _i of 2.9 × 10⁻⁴ mol l⁻¹ determined for the crab enzyme. Ca²⁺ inhibited the activity of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase from crab gill plasma membranes with a K _i of 4.3 × 10⁻⁴ mol l⁻¹. The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase from crab gill was inhibited by Cd²⁺ with a K _i of 9.1 × 10⁻⁵ mol l⁻¹. Cd²⁺ inhibited the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase from dog kidney with a K _i (6.4 × 10⁻⁵ mol l⁻¹) comparable to that observed in the crab gill enzyme. Under experimental conditions Cd²⁺-inhibition of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase was irreversible. Repeated washing, centrifugation and homogenization of the plasma membranes (four times) with Cd²⁺-free buffer did not restore any activity lost in the presence of 1 × 10⁻³ mol l⁻¹ Cd²⁺. Since ouabain-insensitive (nonspecific) ATPases in the plasma membrane fraction of crab gills were inhibited by Cd²⁺ in the same way as Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, the heavy metal is considered as an unspecific ATPase inhibitor. Comparing these results with literature data on Cd²⁺-binding to electrophoretically separated proteins suggests that Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is a Cd²⁺-binding enzyme. The results obtained on Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase were reflected by Cd²⁺-inhibition of the branchial ion-transport functions depending on this enzyme. The transepithelial short-circuit current of isolated gill half lamellae, a direct measure of area-specific active ion uptake, and the transepithelial potential difference of isolated, perfused whole gills, also indicative of active ion uptake, were inhibited by the heavy metal in a time- and dose-dependent mode. Remarkably these inhibitions were also irreversible. These findings are ecologically and biomedically significant: even when the actual environmental or tissue concentrations measured are low, biological microstructures such as Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase may accumulate the heavy metal by tight binding over prolonged periods until the first inhibitory effects occur. Received: 25 June 1997 / Accepted: 25 August 1997     

Spatial and temporal characterization of trace elements and nutrients in the Rawal Lake Reservoir,Pakistan using multivariate analysis techniques

Rawal Lake Reservoir is renowned for its ecological significance and is the sole source of drinking water of the third largest city of Pakistan. However, fish kill in recent years and anthropogenic impacts from human-related activities in its catchment area have resulted in deterioration of its surface water quality. This study aims to characterize spatial and temporal variations in surface water quality, identify contaminant sources, and compare their levels with quality guidelines. Surface water samples were collected from 10 sites and analyzed for 27 physicochemical parameters for a period of 2 years on a seasonal basis. Concentration of metals in surface water in pre-monsoon were in the order: Fe > Mg > Ca > Mn > Zn > Ni > Cr > Cu > Co > Pb, whereas in post-monsoon, the order of elemental concentrations was: Ca > Mg > Na > Fe > K > Zn > Cr > Li > Pb > Co > Ni > Cu > Mn > Cd. Metals (Ni, Fe, Zn, and Ca), pH, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and nutrients (PO₄³⁻, NO₃–N, and SO₄²⁻) were measured higher in pre-monsoon, whereas concentration of Cu, Mn, Cr, Co, Pb, Cd, K, Na, Mg, Li, Cl⁻, and NH₄–N were recorded higher in post-monsoon. Results highlighted serious metal pollution of surface water. Mean concentration of Zn, Cd, Ni, Cu, Fe, Cr, and Pb in both seasons and Mn in post-monsoon were well above the permissible level of surface water quality criteria. Results stress the dire need to reduce heavy-metal input into the lake basin and suggest that heavy-metal contamination should be considered as an integral part of future planning and management strategies for restoration of water quality of the lake reservoir.     

Inorganic mercury and methylmercury in surface sediments and mussel tissues from a microtidal lagoon (Bizerte, Tunisia)

The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of mercury compounds in marine sediments and mussel tissues collected in the lagoon of Bizerte, Tunisia, during two seasons (summer and winter). Inorganic mercury (Hg²⁺) concentrations in sediments were found to be highly variable, ranging from 0.04 nmol.g¹ to 3.22 nmol.g⁻¹ (dry weight) with a mean value of 0.52 nmol.g⁻¹. Anthropogenic sources of Hg²⁺, most probably metallurgy or tire production industries, have been evidenced. The mean concentration of monomethylmercury (MeHg⁺) in the surface sediments is 2.32 pmol g⁻¹ ranging from below the detection limit (0.45 pmol.g⁻¹) to 14.6 pmol.g⁻¹. No significant variation was observed between winter and summer seasons for both mercury species concentration in the sediments. The Hg²⁺ concentrations in mussel tissues are also variable, ranging from 0.007 to 1.347 nmol.g⁻¹ (dry weight). The mean concentration is 0.70 nmol.g⁻¹. In these tisssues, Hg²⁺ is generally the major compound, making up ca. 88% of total mercury concentrations. However, methylmercury concentrations are significant and homogeneous, ranging from 62 to 121 pmol.g⁻¹ (mean 96 pmol.g⁻¹). The results suggest that a fraction of the inorganic mercury load in the sediments of the lagoon undergoes methylation pathways. MeHg⁺ produced is assimilated in the mussels more readily than Hg²⁺.     

Potential fluoride contamination in the drinking water of Marks Nagar,Unnao district,Uttar Pradesh,India

This study was conducted in the summer season (May, 2007). The fluoride concentration along with other physico-chemical parameters in ground water samples was determined in Marks Nagar of Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh (India), since it is the only source of drinking water for the villagers. The fluoride concentration in the water varied from 0.8 to 13.9 mgl⁻¹ with a mean of 4.02 mgl⁻¹. The correlation analysis revealed that fluoride had a positive correlation with pH, CO₃, HCO₃, and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), whereas a negative correlation with Ca and Mg was found. A soil profile was also dug in the area to assess depth-wise fluoride content in the soil. The soil samples and underneath calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) concretion were analyzed for fluoride content. The percent of soluble fluoride to total fluoride in the soil varied from 25.15 to 4.76% down the soil profile. The soluble fluoride was found to decrease with the increase in the clay content in the soil. The total leachable fluoride in CaCO₃ concretions was found to be 6.08%. It was inferred from this study that the soil and underneath layer of CaCO₃ concretions may be the potential source of fluoride contamination in the shallow drinking water sources of the area.     

Residues of fluoroquinolones in marine aquaculture environment of the Pearl River Delta, South China

Concentrations and distributions of selected fluoroquinolones (norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin) in water, sediments and nine kinds of fish species collected from 6 sites in two marine aquaculture regions of the Pearl River Delta, China, were analyzed by using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (HPLC). The results showed that the concentrations of ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin were below the limits of quantification (LOQ) in all water samples except for norfloxacin. Norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin concentrations ranged from 1.88 to 11.20 ng g⁻¹ dry wt, 0.76–2.42 ng g⁻¹ dry wt in sediments collected from the Dapeng’ao region (sites 1–3) and ranged from 2.31 to 4.75 ng g⁻¹ dry wt, 1.26–1.76 ng g⁻¹ dry wt in sediments collected from the Hailing Island region (sites 4–6), respectively. However, no enrofloxacin was found in all sediment samples. The three fluoroquinolones (FQs) were detected in all fish samples, and the concentrations were higher in liver tissues than those in muscle tissues. The levels of norfloxacin were higher than ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin in both liver and muscle tissues. Among the nine marine fish species, Siganus fuscescens from Hailing Island had a significantly high level of norfloxacin in liver tissue (254.58 ng g⁻¹ wet wt), followed by Sparus macrocephalus (133.15 ng g⁻¹ wet wt) from Dapeng’ao, and the lowest value was Lutianus argentimaculatus (5.18 ng g⁻¹ wet wt) from Hailing Island. The obtained results of FQs in present study do not represent a risk to the human health in Guangdong coastal area, based on the maximum residue limits (MRLs) established by Chinese Government and the acceptable daily intake (ADI) recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization (FAO/WHO).     

Geochemistry of leachates from the El Fraile sulfide tailings piles in Taxco, Guerrero, southern Mexico

Leachates from the El Fraile tailings impoundment (Taxco, Mexico) were monitored every 2 months from October 2001 to August 2002 to assess the geochemical characteristics. These leachates are of interest because they are sometimes used as alternative sources of domestic water. Alternatively, they drain into the Cacalotenango creek and may represent a major source of metal contamination of surface water and sediments. Most El Fraile leachates show characteristics of Ca–SO₄, (Ca+Mg)–SO₄, Mg–SO₄ and Ca–(SO₄+HCO₃) water types and are near-neutral (pH=6.3–7.7). Some acid leachates are generated by the interaction of meteoric water with tailings during rainfall events (pH=2.4–2.5). These contain variable levels of SO₄ ²⁻ (280–29,500 mg l⁻¹) and As (<0.01–12.0 mg l⁻¹) as well as Fe (0.025–2352 mg l⁻¹), Mn (0.1–732 mg l⁻¹), Zn (<0.025–1465 mg l⁻¹) and Pb (<0.01–0.351 mg l⁻¹). Most samples show the highest metal enrichment during the dry seasons. Leachates used as domestic water typically exceed the Mexican Drinking Water Guidelines for sulfate, hardness, Fe, Mn, Pb and As, while acidic leachates exceed the Mexican Guidelines for Industrial Discharge Waters for pH, Cu, Cd and As. Speciation shows that in near-neutral solutions, metals exist mainly as free ions, sulfates and bicarbonates, while in acidic leachates they are present as sulfates and free ions. Arsenic appears as As^(V) in all samples. Thermodynamic and mineralogical evidence indicates that precipitation of Fe oxides and oxyhydroxides, clay minerals and jarosite as well as sorption by these minerals are the main processes controlling leachate chemistry. These processes occur mainly after neutralization by interaction with bedrock and equilibration with atmospheric oxygen.     

Assessment of the chemical components of Famenin groundwater,western Iran

The Faminin area in the semi-arid Hamadan state, western Iran is facing a serious deficiency in groundwater resources due to an increasing demand associated with rapid population growth and agricultural development. The chemical composition of 78 well samples throughout the Faminin area was determined with the aim of evaluating the concentration of the background ions and identifying the major hydrogeochemical processes that control the groundwater chemistry. The similarity between rock and groundwater chemistries in the recharge area indicates a significant rock-water interaction. The hydrochemical types Na–HCO₃ and Na–SO₄ are the predominate forms in the groundwater, followed by water types Ca–HCO₃ and Na–Cl. The high values of electrical conductivity and high concentrations of Na⁺, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ in the groundwater appeared to be caused by the dissolution of mineral phases and would appeared to be caused by anthropogenic activities, such as intense agricultural practices (application of fertilizers, irrigation practice), urban and industrial waste discharge, among others.     

Characterization and sources of PAHs in an urban river system in Beijing,China

Water samples from 20 locations on rivers in the Tongzhou District of Beijing were collected four times from July 2005 to March 2006. In addition, sediment samples were collected in July 2005. All samples were analyzed for 16 US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) priority pollutants polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The concentration, distribution, seasonal variation, and sources of the 16 PAH compounds identified in the water samples, suspended particles, and surface sediments were then evaluated. The concentrations of PAHs in the water and suspended particle and surface sediment samples ranged from 87.3 to 1,890 ng l⁻¹, 1,330 to 27,700 ng g⁻¹, and 156 to 8,650 ng g⁻¹, respectively. These results demonstrated that rivers in the Tongzhou District of Beijing had a high level of PAH pollution, especially in the suspended particles. The highest and lowest concentrations of PAHs in the water samples were observed in summer and spring. However, the seasonal variations in the concentration of PAHs in the suspended particles were more complicated. The dominant compounds in the water, suspended particle, and surface sediment samples were two-, three- and four-ring PAH compounds, respectively. Ratio analysis illustrated that fuel-burning was the primary source of PAHs in the study area. Gasoline, diesel, coal, and coke oven sources were identified and the contributions of the different fuel-burning sources were then calculated using factor analysis and multiple linear regression. These analyses revealed that coal combustion, gasoline combustion plus coke oven emission, and diesel combustion accounted for 38.8%, 38.5%, and 22.7% of the PAHs in suspended particles, respectively.     

Concentrations of inorganic elements in 20 municipal waters in Sweden before and after treatment – links to human health

The water chemistry of 20 municipal water treatment plants in southern Sweden, representing various bedrock situations, and water qualities, were investigated. Four water samples, raw and treated, were collected from each plant and analyzed by predominantly ICP-OES and ICP-MS at four occasions from June to December, 2001. The concentrations of Ca, Mg, K, Na, HCO₃ and a number of micronutrients, varied considerably in treated waters from the studied plants (ranges; Ca: 9.1–53.7 mg L⁻¹, Mg: 1.4–10.9 mg L⁻¹, K: 1.1–4.8 mg L⁻¹, Na; 5.4–75.6 mg L⁻¹, HCO₃: 27–217 mg L⁻¹). The elimination of Fe and Mn from raw water was efficient in all treatments investigated, giving concentrations in treated waters below the detection limits at some plants. Softening filters gave waters with Ca-concentrations comparable to the softest waters in this study. Adjustment of pH by use of chemicals like lye, soda or lime, modified the consumer water composition significantly, besides raising the pH. It was estimated that drinking water contributed to approximately 2.2–13% of the daily Ca uptake, if the gastrointestinal uptake efficiency from food and water was estimated to be around 50%. The corresponding figures for Mg was 1.0–7% and for F 0–59%. None of the studied elements showed any significant time trends in raw or treated waters during the follow-up period. The concentrations of potentially toxic metals such as Al, Pb and U were low and did not indicate risks for adverse health effects (ranges; Al: 0.5–2.3 μg L⁻¹, Pb: 0–0.3 μg L⁻¹, U: 0.2.5 μg L⁻¹).     

Standing crops and vertical distribution of four groups of marine planktonic ciliates in relation to phytoplankton chlorophyll a

Standing crops and the vertical distribution of four groups of ciliates, autotrophic naked ciliates (ANC), heterotrophic naked ciliates (HNC ), mixotrophic naked ciliates (MNC) and loricated ciliates (LC ), were analysed in relation to phytoplankton chlorophyll a in the western Pacific. Data were gathered from the upper 60 to 200 m of water in the subarctic North Pacific in spring, in the subtropical North Pacific in spring, in Toyama Bay in summer, off eastern Australia in spring and off Sanriku in spring and fall. Of the four groups, the standing crop of HNC (cells l⁻¹) showed the highest correlation to phytoplankton chloro- phyll a [CHL, μg l⁻¹; r=0.66, n=365 (HNC=490 ×CHL ^0.653)]. Depths of the maximum layers of HNC and MNC were usually shallower than that of chlorophyll a, while those of ANC and LC occurred frequently beneath the chlorophyll maximum layer. This indicates that these four ciliate groups are substantially different from each other, and that each group holds a different ecological position in the marine microbial food web. Received: 27 October 1997 / Accepted: 27 June 1998     

Mobilization of arsenic and other trace elements of health concern in groundwater from the Salí River Basin, Tucumán Province, Argentina

The Salí River Basin in north-west Argentina (7,000 km²) is composed of a sequence of Tertiary and Quaternary loess deposits, which have been substantially reworked by fluvial and aeolian processes. As with other areas of the Chaco-Pampean Plain, groundwater in the basin suffers a range of chemical quality problems, including arsenic (concentrations in the range of 12.2–1,660 μg L⁻¹), fluoride (50–8,740 μg L⁻¹), boron (34.0–9,550 μg L⁻¹), vanadium (30.7–300 μg L⁻¹) and uranium (0.03–125 μg L⁻¹). Shallow groundwater (depths up to 15 m) has particularly high concentrations of these elements. Exceedances above WHO (2011) guideline values are 100% for As, 35% for B, 21% for U and 17% for F. Concentrations in deep (>200 m) and artesian groundwater in the basin are also often high, though less extreme than at shallow depths. The waters are oxidizing, with often high bicarbonate concentrations (50.0–1,260 mg L⁻¹) and pH (6.28–9.24). The ultimate sources of these trace elements are the volcanic components of the loess deposits, although sorption reactions involving secondary Al and Fe oxides also regulate the distribution and mobility of trace elements in the aquifers. In addition, concentrations of chromium lie in range of 79.4–232 μg L⁻¹ in shallow groundwater, 129–250 μg L⁻¹ in deep groundwater and 110–218 μg L⁻¹ in artesian groundwater. All exceed the WHO guideline value of 50 μg L⁻¹. Their origin is likely to be predominantly geogenic, present as chromate in the ambient oxic and alkaline aquifer conditions.     

In situ net primary productivity and photosynthesis of Antarctic sea ice algal, phytoplankton and benthic algal communities

Primary production at Antarctic coastal sites is contributed from sea ice algae, phytoplankton and benthic algae. Oxygen microelectrodes were used to estimate sea ice and benthic primary production at several sites around Casey, a coastal area in eastern Antarctica. Maximum oxygen export from sea ice was 0.95 mmol O₂ m⁻² h⁻¹ (~11.7 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹) while from the sediment it was 6.08 mmol O₂ m⁻² h⁻¹ (~70.8 mg C m⁻² h⁻¹). When the ice was present O₂ export from the benthos was either low or negative. Sea ice algae assimilation rates were up to 3.77 mg C (mg Chl-a)⁻¹ h⁻¹ while those from the benthos were up to 1.53 mg C (mg Chl-a)⁻¹ h⁻¹. The contribution of the major components of primary productivity was assessed using fluorometric techniques. When the ice was present approximately 55–65% of total daily primary production occurred in the sea ice with the remainder unequally partitioned between the sediment and the water column. When the ice was absent, the benthos contributed nearly 90% of the primary production.     

Microsensor studies of photosynthesis and respiration in larger symbiotic foraminifera. I The physico-chemical microenvironment of Marginopora vertebralis, Amphistegina lobifera and Amphisorus hemprichii

 The physico-chemical microenvironment of larger benthic foraminifera was studied with microsensors for O₂, CO₂, pH, Ca²⁺ and scalar irradiance. Under saturating light conditions, the photosynthetic activity of the endosymbiotic algae increased the O₂ up to 183% air saturation and a pH of up to 8.6 was measured at the foraminiferal shell surface. The photosynthetic CO₂ fixation decreased the CO₂ at the shell down to 4.7 μM. In the dark, the respiration of host and symbionts decreased the O₂ level to 91% air saturation and the CO₂ concentration reached up to 12 μM. pH was lowered relative to the ambient seawater pH of 8.2. The endosymbionts responded immediately to changing light conditions, resulting in dynamic changes of O₂, CO₂ and pH at the foraminiferal shell surface during experimentally imposed light–dark cycles. The dynamic concentration changes demonstrated for the first time a fast exchange of metabolic gases through the perforate, hyaline shell of Amphistegina lobifera. A diffusive boundary layer (DBL) limited the solute exchange between the foraminifera and the surrounding water. The DBL reached a thickness of 400–700 μm in stagnant water and was reduced to 100–300 μm under flow conditions. Gross photosynthesis rates were significantly higher under flow conditions (4.7 nmol O₂ cm⁻³ s⁻¹) than in stagnant water (1.6 nmol O₂ cm ⁻³ s⁻¹), whereas net photosynthesis rates were unaffected by flow conditions. The Ca²⁺ microprofiles demonstrated a spatial variation in sites of calcium uptake over the foraminiferal shells. Ca²⁺ gradients at the shell surface showed total Ca²⁺ uptake rates of 0.6 to 4.2 nmol cm⁻² h⁻¹ in A. lobifera and 1.7 to 3.6 nmol cm⁻² h⁻¹ in Marginopora vertebralis. The scattering and reflection of the foraminiferal calcite shell increased the scalar irradiance at the surface up to 205% of the incident irradiance. Transmittance measurements across the calcite shell suggest that the symbionts are shielded from higher light levels, receiving approximately 30% of the incident light for photosynthesis. Received: 6 July 1999 / Accepted: 28 April 2000     

Osmotic and ionic concentration of the egg capsule fluid of Crepidula fornicata in relation to embryonic development

Osmotic pressure and major ions (Cl⁻, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺) of the egg capsule fluid in the slipper limpet Crepidula fornicata were investigated in relation to embryonic development. Calcium permeability of the capsule wall was studied at oviposition, by dipping freshly laid egg capsules in ⁴⁵Ca as a tracer. This study also determined total calcium content of the embryos at different developmental stages. Osmolarity and major ion concentrations in egg capsule fluid were higher than seawater at uncleaved and trochophore stages, and then dropped to the same level as sea water at veliger stage. Concentrations of Cl⁻ and Na⁺ were relatively high at oviposition, peaked at trochophore stage, and finally dropped close to concentrations of seawater at hatching. In contrast, concentrations of Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ decreased steadily during capsular development. Radiotracer permeability experiments in freshly laid egg capsules confirmed that the capsule wall is impermeable to this ion at that stage. However, because of the dissolution of the inner layer of the wall during the final part of capsular development, the wall becomes permeable to calcium and probably to the rest of the major ions studied.     

Toxicity of tri- and penta-valent arsenic, alone and in combination, to the cladoceran Daphnia carinata: the influence of microbial transformation in natural waters

The acute toxicity of arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) alone and in combination to a cladoceran, Daphnia carinata, was studied in both cladoceran culture medium and natural water collected from a local suburban stream. As(III) was found to be more toxic than As(V) to Daphnia survival. The LC₅₀ values for As(III), As(V), and As(III) + As(V) were 0.554, 1.499, and 0.692 mg l⁻¹, respectively. Although various species of As, particularly As(III) and As(V) co-exist together in natural waters, the existing guidelines for water quality are based on individual As species. The results of this investigation suggest that As(III) and As(V) can interact either synergistically or additively resulting in an increase in the overall toxicity of the mixture compared to individual As species. Also, indigenous microorganisms in natural water may play a significant role in the transformation of As, thereby influencing the toxicity of As in receiving waters. This study clearly suggests that the joint action of As species should be considered in the development of water quality guidelines. To our knowledge this is the first study on the interactive effect of As(III) and As(V) to a cladoceran. Thus, this study suggests that these two species of As, when present together above 0.1 mg l⁻¹ concentration, are toxic to fresh water invertebrates; therefore, pollution with these compounds may adversely affect natural ecosystems.