Can we meet targets for biofuels and renewable energy in transport given the constraints imposed by policy in agriculture and energy?

The deployment of biofuels is significantly affected by policy in energy and agriculture. In the energy arena, concerns regarding the sustainability of biofuel systems and their impact on food prices led to a set of sustainability criteria in EU Directive 2009/28/EC on Renewable Energy. In addition, the 10% biofuels target by 2020 was replaced with a 10% renewable energy in transport target. This allows the share of renewable electricity used by electric vehicles to contribute to the mix in achieving the 2020 target. Furthermore, only biofuel systems that effect a 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared with the fuel they replace are allowed to contribute to meeting the target. In the agricultural arena, cross-compliance (which is part of EU Common Agricultural Policy) dictates the allowable ratio of grassland to total agricultural land, and has a significant impact on which biofuels may be supported. This paper outlines the impact of these policy areas and their implications for the production and use of biofuels in terms of the 2020 target for 10% renewable transport energy, focusing on Ireland. The policies effectively impose constraints on many conventional energy crop biofuels and reinforce the merits of using biomethane, a gaseous biofuel. The analysis shows that Ireland can potentially satisfy 15% of renewable energy in transport by 2020 (allowing for double credit for biofuels from residues and ligno-cellulosic materials, as per Directive 2009/28/EC) through the use of indigenous biofuels: grass biomethane, waste and residue derived biofuels, electric vehicles and rapeseed biodiesel.     

Sectoral Trends and Driving Forces of Global Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Disaggregation of sectoral energy use and greenhouse gas emissions trends reveals striking differences between sectors and regions of the world. Understanding key driving forces in the energy end-use sectors provides insights for development of projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines global and regional historical trends in energy use and carbon emissions in the industrial, buildings, transport, and agriculture sectors. Activity and economic drivers as well as trends in energy and carbon intensity are evaluated. We show that macro-economic indicators, such as GDP, are insufficient for comprehending trends and driving forces at the sectoral level. These indicators need to be supplemented with sector-specific information for a more complete understanding of future energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.     

Transport of fish from Norway: energy analysis using industrial ecology as the framework

In this article, industrial ecology is used as a framework for analysing transport energy and its implication for products. The importance of the energy use for transport in a natural resource production system is analysed. By using fish as a case study, it is shown that the amount of energy for transport is highly dependent on the transport mode used. When applying industrial ecology principles for making assessments of the environmental impacts of products, the whole product chain is examined. This is an extended life-cycle approach, which also includes the transport of the finished products from the exporter to the importing country. This last part of the transport chain can be extremely energy demanding, as is shown for the case of fish transport. This finding has implications for the products, and for the form in which the products should be transported. Increasing the energy efficiency of production systems is an important industrial ecology principle, and must be taken into consideration when analysing product chains. A revision of today's practice of transporting large quantities of fresh whole fish by transcontinental airliners is bound to be necessary. This is a consequence of the demands for increased energy efficiency of tomorrow's industrial production systems.     

对集装箱联运与环境保护研究

文中介绍了低碳经济对交通运输业的影响,包括低碳交通的概念、低碳经济对交通运输业的影响,介绍了低碳经济要求提升单种运输方式效率、低碳经济要求优化运输结构和低碳经济要求有效调控运输需求。探讨了集装箱联运能耗分析。包括不同运输方式能耗分析,即公路货运能耗系数、铁路货运能耗系数、内河水运能耗系数、单一运输方式完成全社会运量总能耗、集装箱联运二氧化碳排放分析、二氧化碳排放量测算方法的选择、二氧化碳排放量的计算和碳排量结果比较分析。     

Multi-level energy analysis of emerging technologies: a case study in new materials for lithium ion batteries

A range of new nanomaterials to replace the active materials in lithium ion batteries are currently being studied and employed in an attempt to overcome various performance limitations of previous technologies. Nanomaterial production and manufacturing techniques appear to fit into a general trend towards more energy intensive production methods for high-tech goods. This does not necessarily imply an increase in lifecycle energy use; artefacts that consume or transform energy during use could possibly regain this increased initial input via increased efficiency in use. In particular, this paper highlights that larger gains could be possible if the artefact in question allows a given service to be provided via an alternative and more efficient system entirely.The lifecycle energy efficiencies of lithium ion batteries constructed from several new advanced materials are analysed with several different system boundaries. Although nanomaterials require more energy input to produce, the implications of nanomaterials for energy flows in the use phase (i.e. driving), and higher levels such as the architecture of future transport fuel production systems are much larger in magnitude than the initial lifecycle inputs for producing the materials in question.     

Overcoming barriers to the implementation of alternative fuels for road transport in Europe

The success of implementing alternative fuels for road transport depends on their cost, performance and reliability. This paper focuses on the use of natural gas and LPG, hydrogen and biofuels in Europe. A brief presentation is given of their technical development status, their market potential, and barriers to their implementation in various market segments. Some market barriers are common to many new technologies, and can be overcome through adequate policy measures at European level. Generally, a combination of policies is required, and a number of supporting measures increase their effectiveness. The following policies affecting energy use in transport are discussed: market incentives, policies targeting technology and vehicle efficiency, and overall system improvement.     

易燃、易爆危险化学品铁路运输危险性分析

从定性和定量两个方面对易燃、易爆危险化学品的铁路槽罐车运输过程和装卸过程的危险性进行分析,利用道化学火灾爆炸指数法计算易燃、易爆危险化学品铁路罐车的火灾爆炸指数,进行重大危险源辨识,并对重大危险源的概念进行了理论探讨,提出移动式重大危险源的概念。     

铁路运输企业能效对标管理体系研究——以某铁路运输企业为例

能效对标管理体系由能效对标指标体系和对标评价体系所组成。本文以某铁路运输企业为例,结合其实际工作特点,建立能效对标指标体系,针对企业自身和下属站段分别制定了两级对标指标;建立能效对标评价体系,对企业自身和下属单位分别进行对标评价。能效对标管理为该铁路运输企业运营管理提供了一种新模式,能效对标管理体系的建立为其能效对标工作的开展和能效水平的提升提供了支撑和依托。     

低碳交通电动汽车碳减排潜力及其影响因素分析

交通运输是城市能源消耗和碳排放的重点行业,为通过节能减排实现低碳城市发展目标,传统汽油车向新能源汽车的转型是一项重要的举措,其中电动汽车因其节能减排的优势将在这次转型中发挥重要作用.在全面总结现有电动汽车节能减排研究成果的基础上,分析了影响电动汽车的减排因素,并应用燃料生命周期的理论,结合北京市的电动汽车推广计划,以纯电动汽车为例,采用改进的燃料碳排放模型,并设置6种情景分析了电动汽车的碳排放及其减排潜力,包括发电能源结构、车用燃料类型(单位燃料的CO2排放系数)、汽车类型(百公里能耗)、城市交通状况(时速)、煤电发电技术、电池类型(重量、能效)等因素对电动汽车减排潜力的影响.结果表明,改进后的模型能更科学测算燃料消耗碳排放;纯电动汽车具有明显的制约性碳减排潜力,在分析的6种影响因素中其波动幅度为57%～81.2%,其中,发电能源结构和煤电技术供电路线对电动汽车燃料生命周期碳减排空间起决定性作用,其减排空间分别可达78.1%及81.2%.最后从改善能源结构、提高煤电技术、推广节能技术、加快动力蓄电池研发、推广纯电动汽车等方面提出了推广电动汽车降低交通能耗和碳排放的优化措施,以期为低碳交通新能源汽车转型政策的制定提供科学依据和方法支撑.     

腾格里沙漠东南部近地层沙尘水平通量和降尘

沙漠是近地层沙尘物质的重要来源之一,沙漠地区近地层水平输送的沙尘物质随高度的变化特征和不同高度处的沉降量直接影响着沙尘的输送过程. 选择腾格里沙漠东南缘流动沙丘区的风沙科学观测场为研究区,利用沙尘水平通量采集器和降尘测量器对近地层约50 m的不同高度水平运动的沙尘和降尘进行了近2年的观测,对沙漠地区近地层水平运动的沙尘随高度变化特征及不同高度的降尘量进行了讨论. 结果表明:沙尘的水平通量和降尘量均随高度的增加而减小,二者与高度均可表示为指数函数的关系; 同时,沙尘水平通量与降尘量之间存在正相关关系,二者可用线性函数相互转换.      

基于LEAP模型的厦门交通能耗及大气污染物排放分析

交通部门能源消耗和污染物排放的比例较大,增长迅速,因此研究交通部门的节能减排措施显得尤为迫切。文章以厦门市城市交通部门为例,基于LEAP模型构建Xiamen-2008Tra交通模型,研究从基准年2008年到2030年的能源消费量以及CO2、SO2、NOx和PM10的排放量,评估各种节能减排措施的效果。模型设定了基准情景和最佳情景,前者作为参考情景假设政府没有采取任何措施来抑制交通部门能源增长,后者作为最乐观情景包括私家车控制、燃料经济性调整、新能源车推广、燃料税和生物燃料推广五个节能减排子情景。研究结果表明:2030年最佳情景要比基准情景节能36.08%,CO2、SO2、NOx和PM10的排放量分别减少40.46%、47.06%、32.07%和44.91%;在各种节能减排措施中,私家车控制措施节能减排效果最好。     

广东省交通碳排放核算及影响因素分析

交通领域是二氧化碳排放的重要领域,为研究广东省的交通碳排放及影响因素,利用IPCC（联合国政府间气候变化专门委员会）在温室气体清单指南中提供的方法估算了广东交通碳排放量,并应用LMDI分解法（对数平均指数法）对广东交通碳排放进行因素分解分析.结果表明:① 2001-2010年广东交通碳排放量从1 950.98×104 t增至6 068.41×104 t,其中交通运输业碳排放是广东交通碳排放的主体,私人交通碳排放已成为广东交通碳排放不可忽视的组成部分.② 交通运输业中的公路碳排放量占比最大,占56%~64%;铁路的碳排放量占比最小,占0.6%~1.6%;水运具有较大的节能优势;民航单位周转量碳排放量最高.③ 交通运输业发展水平、运输结构、私人汽车数量规模对广东交通碳排放增加的贡献率分别为68.79%、36.14%、18.66%,是拉动广东交通碳排放增长的主要因素;运输强度与能源强度的贡献率分别为-18.1%、-6.46%,是抑制交通碳排放增长的因素.广东可以通过采取优化交通运输结构、使用替代清洁能源等措施减少交通碳排放.      

Renewable hydrogen production: a technical evaluation based on process simulation

An evaluation of different hydrogen production technologies based on renewable raw materials and/or renewable energy is presented. The evaluation comprises alkaline electrolysis, steam reforming of both biogas and gasification gas, the coupled dark and photo fermentation as well as the coupled dark and biogas fermentation. Each technology is investigated with different plant layouts and/or different raw materials. All examined technologies are designed to produce hydrogen in a quality suitable for the use in mobile fuel cells. The presented evaluation is based on the hydrogen production efficiency and the energy efficiency of the processes.     

The energy consumption and environmental impacts of a color TV set in China

The present study analyses the different processes followed during color TV set production along with the energy consumption and the environment emissions in each stage. The purpose is to identify “hot-spots”, i.e. parts of the life cycle important to the total environmental impact. The analysis is performed using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, which is a method used to identify and quantify in the environmental performance of a process or a product from “cradle to grave”. LCA methodology provides a quantitative basis for assessing potential improvements in the environmental performance of a system throughout the life cycle. The system investigated includes the production of manufacturing materials, transport of manufacturing materials, color TV set manufacturing, transport of color TV sets, use of color TV sets, discarding color TV sets and partial plastic waste energy utilization. The environmental burdens that arise from color TV sets are mainly due to air emissions derived from fossil fuel utilization.     

Two-dimensional numerical and eco-toxicological modeling of chemical spills

The effects of chemical spills on aquatic nontarget organisms were evaluated in this study. Based on a review of three types of current eco-toxicological models of chemicals, i.e., ACQUATOX model of the US-EPA, Hudson River Model of PCBs, and critical body residual (CBR) model and dynamic energy budget (DEBtox) model, this paper presents an uncoupled numerical ecotoxicological model. The transport and transformation of spilled chemicals were simulated by a chemical transport model (including flow and sediment transport), and the mortalities of an organism caused by the chemicals were simulated by the extended threshold damage model, separately. Due to extreme scarcity of data, this model was applied to two hypothetical cases of chemical spills happening upstream of a lake. Theoretical analysis and simulated results indicated that this model is capable of reasonably predicting the acute effects of chemical spills on aquatic ecosystems or organism killings.     

武汉市道路交通业CO_2排放与减排潜力分析

为了促进武汉市低碳经济发展,减少交通出行带来的碳排放压力,核算了武汉市道路交通出行的CO2排放量,并采用低度、中度和强化3种减排情景模式对武汉道路交通出行的碳减排潜力进行了测算,计算出了不同情景下武汉市道路交通出行的碳减排强度。结果表明,2005年以来道路交通业CO2排放总量呈显著增长趋势。私家轿车的CO2排放量增加速度最快,大货车的CO2排放量在各类交通工具排放量中占比最大,公交车和出租车的CO2排放量所占比例较小。对3种不同情景的模拟结果表明,在低度减排情景减排效果有限,强化低碳情景下才能达到减排效果。建议采取以下减排措施:改进基础设施,创建良好的出行环境;推进技术创新,降低机动车能耗污染;提升公民素质,加大碳减排的宣传力度;优化道路运输的能效和经营效率管理等。     

基于交通流量和路网的区域机动车污染物排放量空间分配方法

针对传统的机动车污染物排放空间分配方法精度不高的问题,提出了一种基于交通流量与道路系统的机动车污染物排放"标准道路长度"空间分配的新方法.该方法以实际道路网络作为机动车污染物排放的分配基底,根据不同等级道路交通流量的差异引入"标准道路长度"转换体系,并利用GIS技术完成机动车污染物排放的空间分配过程.将该方法应用于珠三角地区,建立了2004年珠三角地区的机动车污染物空间分配清单.研究结果表明,珠三角地区机动车高污染物排放集中在车辆保有量大、路网密集、交通流量大的城市和地区,且高污染物排放空问分布情况与主干路网的分布一致,呈现出明显的路状分布;结果显示,该方法能有效降低传统方法空问分配的偏差,尤其当路网分辨率提高时.分配结果精度更高,更切合实际排放情况.     

紫色土坡耕地裂隙潜流的产流机理与胶体颗粒迁移

土壤胶体是坡耕地农化物质迁移的主要载体.借助18O（氧同位素）示踪技术,探索了2014年8月29日和9月10日两场降雨下大型紫色土坡耕地（1 500 m2）裂隙潜流产流的水源来源及过程特征,并耦合了胶体颗粒释放与迁移机理的研究.结果表明,裂隙潜流及胶体迁移的水文过程线均总体呈快速上升和长拖尾的特征.随裂隙潜流产流开始,雨水对潜流的贡献逐渐增大,并在流量快速上升段支配裂隙潜流产流,而潜流流量峰值前及退水阶段,土壤前期可动水是潜流的主要产流来源.两场降雨下裂隙潜流中胶体颗粒浓度介于0.60~6.85 mg/L之间,平均值分别为1.58和2.31 mg/L,水浴超声后胶体颗粒浓度平均值分别为原样的2.15和1.81倍.胶体颗粒迁移速率比产流速率快（>30 min）,表明胶体辅助坡地农化物质迁移的潜力较大.对于长历时小降雨事件,潜流中胶体的迁移动态受潜流水化学因素〔如ρ（DOC）、ρ（Mg2+）和EC（电导率）〕支配,而强降雨事件下,潜流中胶体颗粒浓度还与潜流流量呈极显著负相关（R2 > 0.5）.此外,坡地内部产流方式（横向及垂向）对裂隙潜流中胶体颗粒的迁移通量有重要影响.研究显示,裂隙潜流产流过程线结合土水势、18O及水化学指标的动态变化,能够全面揭示裂隙潜流产流的阶段特征以及胶体颗粒释放与迁移的机理,对于进一步研究胶体对磷、有机农药等憎水性农化物的辅助运移特征有重要意义.      

Combining eco-design and user benefits from human-powered energy systems,a win–win situation

This paper presents the use of the human body to power electronic products, two product design cases applying human-powered energy systems and the relation with eco-design. The paper illustrated how the use of an alternative energy system (i.e. human-powered energy systems) offers new viewpoints to the design engineer and brings about environmental improvements. ‘Green marketing’ experiences from Philips teach us that environmental benefits should be backed-up by additional user benefits in order to be effective in the market. Human-powered energy systems offer these possibilities.