OBSERVATIONS ON KINEMATIC RESPONSE IN URBAN RUNOFF MODELS1

ABSTRACT: This paper first discusses the results of sensitivity analyses conducted on various parameters of the San Francisco Stormwater Model ta version of WREM) and the Penn State Runoff Model in terms of their impact on outflow hydrographs. The parameters considered within a idealized catchment include: basin shape, imperivous fraction, overland roughness and slope: deterntion depth; infiltration capacity; and hyetograph timing. Second, the results for the hypothetical catchment are extended to the lazzard laboratory surfaces (asphalt, grass, roofing material) as a mean of illustrating the need for changes in model structure, as opposed to continued parameter adjustment Finally the effect of altering the scale of hydraulic representation in the surface runoff and sewer transport calculations are demonstrated for two gaged watersheds in Hamburg, West Germany.     

MODELING NORTH CASCADES ANNUAL RUNOFF DISTRIBUTION USING DRAINAGE BASIN ELEVATION DISTRIBUTION1

ABSTRACT: The annual distribution of flow in a drainage basin within a given region is a function of many factors. These may include annual distribution of rainfall, basin orientation, ground cover, or presence of glaciers. Since the North Cascades region of northern Washington State has little variation in precipitation distribution by month, and the region has significant snowpack, one would predict that in an unregulated basin, basin elevation would be one of the most important factors impacting an annual hydrograph distribution. Such a prediction can be made since the higher a drainage basin is, the larger the portion of runoff that would occur as late spring snowmelt. Given that there is a relationship between elevation distribution and annual hydrograph, the problem becomes one of how to use this relationship to model an ungaged basin's hydrograph. This study concludes that, within the North Cascades region and perhaps within other regions, an effective method of determining annual flow distribution is to model ungaged flows in the same manner as flows from a gaged basin with an elevation distribution similar to that of the subject basin.     

REGIONAL RUNOFF SIMULATION FOR SOUTHEAST MICHIGAN1

ABSTRACT: The feasibility of simulating monthly runoff for southeast Michigan, which comprises four major river basins, was evaluated with the Streamflow Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation watershed model. The evaluation covered a 13-year period (1961–73), which encompassed a complete runoff cycle. Results indicate it is feasible to simulate monthly runoff volumes on a regional scale with a single equivalent watershed by using daily precipitation and temperature data. Simulation of regional flows appears particularly attractive for the Great Lakes basin, since the basin consists of many relatively small watersheds. This method also appears promising for development of monthly runoff forecasts by employing average monthly meteorological data distributed on a daily basis. Tests of six-month runoff forecasts show relatively small deterioration with time and offer considerable improvement over climatology.     

URBANIZATION IMPACT ON WATER QUALITY DURING A FLOOD IN SMALL WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT: The impact of various urban land uses on water flow and quality in streams is being studied by monitoring small streams in the Milwaukee urban area. This paper compares the responses of an urban watershed and an agricultural watershed to an autumn rainfall of 2.2 cm. Flow from the urban basin showed a substantially greater response to the rain than that from the rural. Dilution, resulting from the greater quantities of surface runoff in the urban watershed, caused lower concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate and total dissolved solids in the urban stream. The total quantity of these materials removed per unit drainage area of the urban basin was much greater, however. Road salt was still among the dominant dissolved materials in the urban water chemistry seven months after the last road salting. Sodium was apparently being released from adsorption by clays in the urban basin. Suspended sediment concentrations and total loads were higher in the urban stream.     

Topographic Effects on Soil Organic Carbon in Louisiana Watersheds

Terrestrial carbon storage is influenced by a number of environmental factors, among which topographic and geomorphological features are of special significance. This study was designed to examine the relationships of soil organic carbon (SOC) density to various terrain parameters and watershed characteristics across Louisiana, USA. A polygon data set of 484 watersheds and 12 river drainage basins for Louisiana was used to form the landscape units. SOC densities were calculated for each soil map unit using the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database. Average drainage densities and average slopes at watershed and basin scales were quantified with the 1:24 K Digital Elevation Models (DEM) data, and the Louisiana hydrographic water features. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to determine relationships among drainage density, slope, elevation, and SOC. The study found an average watershed drainage density of 1.6 km/km² and an average watershed slope of 2.9 degrees in Louisiana. The results revealed that SOC density at both watershed and basin scales was closely related to drainage density, slope, and elevation. SOC density was positively correlated with watershed drainage density, but negatively correlated with watershed slope gradient and elevation. Regression models were developed for predicting SOC density at watershed and basin scales, obtaining regression coefficients (r ²) ranging from 0.43 to 0.83. The study showed that estimation of SOC at watershed and drainage basin scales combining DEM data can be a feasible approach to improve the understanding of the relationships among SOC, topographic, and geomorphological features.     

SENSITIVITY CONSIDERATIONS WHEN MODELING HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES WITH DIGITAL ELEVATION MODEL1

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the sensitivity of a hydrologic models to the type of DEM used. This was done while modeling basin water quality with 1:24,000 and 1:250,000 U.S. Geological Survey DEMs as input to model hydro‐logical processes. The manner in which the model results were sensitive to the choice of raster cell size (scale) is investigated in this study. The Broadhead watershed, located in New Jersey, USA, was chosen as a study area. Curve numbers were estimated by a trial and error to match simulated and observed total discharge. Monthly runoff for the watershed was used in the calibration process. Higher runoff volumes were simulated by the model when the 1:24,000 DEM were used as input data, probably due to the finer resolution which simulated increased average slope and hence higher estimated runoff from the watershed. As the simulated slope of the watershed is flatten with the 1:250,000 DEM, the response of stream flow was delayed and simulated less runoff volume.     

Relationship of Water Quality and Pollutant Loads to Land Uses in adjoining watersheds1

ABSTRACT: The Grand and Saugeen Rivers in southern Ontario were chosen for study as pilot watersheds under the Pollution From Land Use Activities Reference Group (PLUARG) study. The pilot watersheds have adjacent headwater areas and are physically similar in geology, physiography, and climate. Significant differences in water quality between the watersheds at their outlets are attributed to land use and population differences. The major pollutant sources in the two pilot watersheds were identified as trace elements from urban runoff and point source discharges; phosphorus from agricultural and urban runoff and private waste disposal; chloride from transportation corridors; and sediment and nitrogen from agricultural runoff. Yields at the watershed outlets were similar for suspended sediment and two to three times as high in the Grand River for phosphours, nitrogen, chloride, and lead. The higher phosphorus and nitrogen levels were attributed to larger point source inputs and the higher proportion of agricultural activity, comprising 75 percent of the Grand River basin compared to 64 percent in the Saugeen River basin. Similarly, the higher chloride and lead levels were attributed to an order of magnitude larger population and three times as much urban land in the Grand River basin compared to the Saugeen River basin.     

THE WATERSHED IN PRINCIPLE1

Three fundamental concepts linking drainage basin characteristics, stream behavior, and management of watersheds are deduced from field data and observations. An electrical analogy of a watershed clarifies definitions and broadens understanding of this complex natural resource. The three basic principles deal with (1) the interrelationships of watershed morphology, constitution, and appearance; (2) the nature of the control man can exert over runoff-influencing forces, and (3) the efficiency of watershed management efforts. Recognition of these principles can assist educators, managers, planners and researchers to more fully inform students and to more effectively guide and evaluate management decisions.     

SWMHMS - SMALL WATERSHED MONTHLY HYDROLOGIC MODELING SYSTEM1

ABSTRACT: SWMHMS is a conceptual computer modeling program developed to simulate monthly runoff from a small nonurban watershed. The input needed to run model simulations include daily precipitation, monthly data for evapotranspiration determination (average temperature, crop consumptive coefficients, and percent daylight hours), and six watershed parameter values. Evapotranspiration was calculated with the Blaney-Criddle equation while surface runoff was determined using the Soil Conservation Service curve number procedure. For watershed parameter evaluation, SWMHMS provides options for both optimization and sensitivity analysis. Observed runoff data are required along with the model input previously mentioned in order to conduct parameter optimization. SWMEIMS was tested with data from six watersheds located in different regions of the United States. Model accuracy was generally found to be very good except on watersheds having substantial snowfall accumulation. In having only six watershed parameters, SWMHMS is less complex to use than many other computer programs that calculate monthly runoff. Consequently, SWMHMS may find its greatest application as an educational tool for students learning principles of hydrologic modeling, such as parameter evaluation procedures and the impacts of input data uncertainty on model results.     

SURFACE WATER RESOURCES OF ST. JOHNS RIVER,FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: The St. Johns River basin is the largest watershed entirely within the State of Florida, and is one of the few northward flowing rivers in the United States. The river basin contains 11,431 square miles, of which 9,430 square miles are drained by the river and its tributaries. The remainder drains into the Atlantic Ocean or the Intracoastal Waterway. Its largest sub-basin is the Oklawaha River basin, which has a drainage area of 2,870 square miles. Ground elevations range from sea level to 200 feet above mean sea level in the main river basin and as high as 300 feet above mean sea level in the Oklawaha River basin. This study was designed to investigate the surface water resources of the St. Johns River and the existing consumptive uses. The analysis revealed that the river is an extremely large and valuable resource which has been under-utilized and could play a much stronger role in serving the needs of the people in the basin.     

UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS OF RUNOFF ESTIMATES FROM A RUNOFF CONTOUR MAP1

ABSTRACT: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) conducted an analysis to quantify the uncertainty associated with interpolating runoff to specific sites using a runoff contour map. We interpolated runoff to 93 gaged watersheds from a runoff contour map using (1) hand interpolation to the watershed outlet, (2) a computer interpolation to the watershed outlet, and (3) hand interpolation to the watershed centroid. We compared the interpolated values to the actual gaged values and found that there was a bias in the average interpolated value for runoff estimated at basin outlets, with interpolated values being less than the actual. We found no significant difference between the hand interpolation method and the computer interpolation method except that the computer method tended to have higher variability due to factors inherent to the software used. There were no strong spatial correlations or regional patterns in the runoff interpolations, which indicates that there are no regional biases introduced in the development of the contour map. We determined that we could estimate runoff, on the average, within approximately 8.9 cm (3.5 in; 15 percent) of the measured value using the three methods. The results of this work indicate that runoff contour maps can he used in regional studies to estimate runoff to ungaged systems with quantifiable uncertainty.     

APPLICATION OF THE SNOWMELT RUNOFF MODEL USING MULTIPLE-PARAMETER LANDSCAPE ZONES ON THE TOWANDA CREEK BASIN,PENNSYLVANIA1

ABSTRACT: The Snowmelt Runoff Model (SRM) is designed to compute daily stream discharge using satellite snow cover data for a basin divided into elevation zones. For the Towanda Creek basin, a Pennsylvania watershed with relatively little relief, analysis of snow cover images revealed that both elevation and land use affected snow accumulation and melt on the landscape. The distribution of slope and aspect on the watershed was also considered; however, these landscape features were not well correlated with the available snow cover data. SRM streamflow predictions for 1990, 1993 and 1994 snowmelt seasons for the Towanda Creek basin using a combination of elevation and land use zones yielded more precise streamflow estimates than the use of standard elevation zones alone. The use of multiple-parameter zones worked best in non-rain-on-snow conditions such as in 1990 and 1994 seasons where melt was primarily driven by differences in solar radiation. For seasons with major rain-on-snow events such as 1993, only modest improvements were shown since melt was dominated by rainfall energy inputs, condensation and sensible heat convection. Availability of GIS coverages containing satellite snow cover data and other landscape attributes should permit similar reformulation of multiple-parameter watershed zones and improved SRM streamflow predictions on other basins.     

COST MINIMIZATION OF NUTRIENT REDUCTION IN WATERSHED MANAGEMENT USING LINEAR PROGRAMMING1

ABSTRACT: Linear programming is applied to identify the least cost strategy for reaching politically specified phosphorus and total suspended solids reduction targets for the Fox-Wolf river basin in Northeast Wisconsin. The programming model uses data collected on annualized unit reduction costs associated with five categories of sources of phosphorus and total suspended solids discharge in each of the 41 sub-watersheds in the basin to determine the least cost management strategy. Results indicate that: (1) cost-effective nutrient reduction requires careful selection of geographic areas and source categories to address throughout the watershed; (2) agricultural sources are the most cost-effective to address in the basin; and (3) care should be exercised in setting nutrient reduction targets, given that there are likely to be significantly increasing marginal costs of nutrient reduction; the model predicts that lowering the most restrictive target by 33 percent would cut reduction expenditures by about 75 percent. Policy implications of the model include support for the investigation and potential development of institutional arrangements that enable cost-effective nutrient reduction activities to occur, such as the creation of an agency with authority over a given watershed, coordinated watershed management activities, or nutrient trading programs.     

SIMULATION OF RUNOFF FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS1

ABSTRACT. .A mathematical model for urban watersheds is being developed in stages at the Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University at Logan. In verifying the watershed as a unit, watershed coefficients are determined on the computer, and related to the urbanization characteristics. The second stage of verification consists of dividing the watershed into subzones, and determining the urban parameters within each subzone. Each subzone is then individually modeled, and outflow hydrographs are routed through succeeding downstream subzones to the gaging point. The model thus makes it possible to: (a) develop runoff models for subzone hydrographs within the urban watershed, and (b) account for spatial variations of storm and watershed characteristics. An attempt was also made to analytically model the outflow hydrograph based on storm and watershed characteristics.     

Climate Change Impacts and Uncertainties on Spring Flooding of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River

The source of the Richelieu River is Lake Champlain, located between the states of New York, Vermont, and Québec. In 2011, the lake and the Richelieu River reached historical flood levels, raising questions about the influence of climate change on the watershed. The objectives of this work are to model the hydrology of the watershed, construct a reservoir model for the lake and to analyze flooding trends using climate simulations. The basin was modeled using the HSAMI lumped conceptual model from Hydro‐Québec with a semi‐distributed approach in order to estimate the inflows into Lake Champlain. The discharge at the Richelieu River was computed by using a mass balance equation between the inputs and outputs of Lake Champlain. Future trends were estimated over the 2041‐2070 and 2071‐2100 periods using a large number of outputs from general circulation models and regional climate models downscaled with constant scaling and daily translation methods. While there is a certain amount of uncertainty as to future trends, there is a decreasing tendency in the magnitude of the mean spring flood. A flood frequency analysis showed most climate projections indicate the severity of most extreme spring floods may be reduced over the two future periods although results are subject to a much larger uncertainty than for the mean spring flood. On the other hand, results indicate summer‐fall extreme events such as caused by hurricane Irene in August 2011 may become more frequent in the future.     

NORMALIZED UNIT HYDROGRAPH AGGREGATION1

ABSTRACT: The unit hydrograph is a common tool in hydraulic design. Used correctly, it allows a design engineer to estimate a runoff hydrograph from a drainage basin given a rainfall event. The typical method for estimating a unit hydrograph for a gaged watershed is by deconvolution. However, distinct storms produce different unit hydrographs for a single watershed. Consequently, a design engineer usually develops a composite, or average, unit hydrograph based on several recorded storm events. Common methods for estimating this composite unit hydrograph include curve fitting, simple aggregation, and multistorm optimization techniques. This paper introduces a new method to perform aggregation of unit hydrographs. The method is an extension to the simple averaging technique, in which prior to averaging, the individual unit hydrograph time ordinates are normalized with respect to the average time to peak. The normalization method is compared to a simple averaging technique and two multistorm aggregation techniques at six rural watersheds in Alabama. The results indicate that on average the normalization method predicts runoff nearly as accurately as the multistorm techniques, and displays improvement for 60 percent of the storms tested when compared with the simple averaging technique.     

A COMPARISON OF DELTA CHANGE AND DOWNSCALED GCM SCENARIOS FOR THREE MOUNTAINOUS BASINS IN THE UNITED STATES1

ABSTRACT: Simulated daily precipitation, temperature, and runoff time series were compared in three mountainous basins in the United States: (1) the Animas River basin in Colorado, (2) the East Fork of the Carson River basin in Nevada and California, and (3) the Cle Elum River basin in Washington State. Two methods of climate scenario generation were compared: delta change and statistical downscaling. The delta change method uses differences between simulated current and future climate conditions from the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research (HadCM2) General Circulation Model (GCM) added to observed time series of climate variables. A statistical downscaling (SDS) model was developed for each basin using station data and output from the National Center for Environmental Prediction/National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEPINCAR) reanalysis regridded to the scale of HadCM2. The SDS model was then used to simulate local climate variables using HadCM2 output for current and future conditions. Surface climate variables from each scenario were used in a precipitation‐runoff model. Results from this study show that, in the basins tested, a precipitation‐runoff model can simulate realistic runoff series for current conditions using statistically down‐scaled NCEP output. But, use of downscaled HadCM2 output for current or future climate assessments are questionable because the GCM does not produce accurate estimates of the surface variables needed for runoff in these regions. Given the uncertainties in the GCMs ability to simulate current conditions based on either the delta change or downscaling approaches, future climate assessments based on either of these approaches must be treated with caution.     

FLOW ANALYSIS OF LANDSLIDE DAMMED LAKE WATERSHEDS: A CASE STUDY1

Abstract: The Chi-Chi earthquake, which occurred on September 21, 1999, and had a magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter scale, resulted in an extensive landslide that blocked the Ching-Shui Creek in Taiwan, forming a large lake with a storage volume of 40 million m³. This paper describes an analytical procedure used to perform flow analysis of the Tsao-Ling watershed, which includes the new landslide dammed lake. In this study, a digital elevation model was applied to obtain the watershed geomorphic factors and stage-area storage function of the landslide dammed lake. Satellite images were used to identify the landslide area and the land cover change that occurred as a result of the earthquake. Two topography-based runoff models were applied for long term and short term streamflow analyses of the watershed because the watershed upstream of the landslide dam was ungauged. The simulated daily flow and storm runoff were verified using limited available measured data in the watershed, and good agreement was obtained. The proposed analytical procedure for flow analysis is considered promising for application to other landslide dammed lake watersheds.     

EVALUATION OF INFLOW TO MIRROR LAKE,NEW HAMPSHIRE1

ABSTRACT: Measured stream discharge plus calculated ground water discharge (total measured runoff) were compared with runoff calculated by the unit-runoff method for the two largest watersheds of Mirror Lake for 1981–1983. Runoff calculated by the unit-runoff method, using Hubbard Brook watershed 3 as the index watershed, was greater than the total measured runoff into Mirror Lake during periods of high flow and slightly less than the total measured runoff into Mirror Lake during periods of low flow. Annual calculated unit runoff was 17 to 37 percent greater than total measured runoff. Differences in monthly runoff are far greater, ranging from 0 to greater than 100 percent. For high flows the calculated unit runoff is about 2 times greater than total measured runoff. For low flows the northwest basin of Mirror Lake has the greatest ground water contribution compared to the other two basins. In contrast, Hubbard Brook watershed 3 has the least ground water contribution.     

Integration of SWAT and HSPF for Simulation of Sediment Sources in Legacy Sediment‐Impacted Agricultural Watersheds

A total maximum daily load for the Chesapeake Bay requires reduction in pollutant load from sources within the Bay watersheds. The Conestoga River watershed has been identified as a major source of sediment load to the Bay. Upland loads of sediment from agriculture are a concern; however, a large proportion of the sediment load in the Conestoga River has been linked to scour of legacy sediment associated with historic millpond sites. Clarifying this distinction and identifying specific segments associated with upland vs. channel sources has important implications for future management. In order to address this important question, we combined the strengths of two widely accepted watershed management models — Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for upland agricultural processes, and Hydrologic Simulation Program FORTRAN (HSPF) for instream fate and transport — to create a novel linked modeling system to predict sediment loading from critical sources in the watershed including upland and channel sources, and to aid in targeted implementation of management practices. The model indicates approximately 66% of the total sediment load is derived from instream sources, in agreement with other studies in the region and can be used to support identification of these channel source segments vs. upland source segments, further improving targeted management. The innovated linked SWAT‐HSPF model implemented in this study is useful for other watersheds where both upland agriculture and instream processes are important sources of sediment load.