Conservation and the Antarctic environment: The working group reports of the joint IUCN/SCAR Symposium on the scientific requirements for Antarctic conservation

Six working groups were set up at the joint IUCN/SCAR Symposium on the scientific requirements for Antarctic conservation. These were charged with (i) identifying gaps in the scientific understanding of ecosystems that inhibit rational management, and (ii) considering whether present conservation practices were taking enough account of what is known of the region, particularly with regard to protected areas. There is still a need for synthesis and further work on stocks and the life history of krill in the pelagic ecosystem. Monitoring strategies are not clear and biomass determinations are difficult and costly. Information on squid is lacking. Although there is much information on higher consumers there is a gap in knowledge of dynamic ecological processes, particularly in winter. Studies of crabeater seals deserve priority. The network of existing protected areas is inadequate for preserving all species of birds, seals and whales; new criteria are needed for effective conservation. On land, the Agreed Measures provide an adequate framework for conservation, though additional steps are needed to ensure adherence to their provisions. Selection criteria are deficient. Additional measures are required; these include the establishment of Conservation Areas, general provision for the protection of biota, and a code of conduct for all activities. Exploitation of marine mammals (except the minke whale) has ceased. Monitoring whales presents difficulties. Fish stocks are significantly exploited and better monitoring is required. Prediction of trends in krill catches is difficult but there has been a large drop in krill fishing effort. Localised effects on predators could occur with catches of a few million metric tons. Commercial mineral exploitation in the Antarctic is a long way in the future but exploitation could result from political motives. There is a need for a data base for the design of investigations and impact assessment. Operational hazards need to be modelled in advance. It is important not to go too far too fast. Antarctica is unique in its control measures and their implementation. However, Specially Protected Areas lack management plans and management plans at Sites of Special Scientific Interest are not consistent. There are inadequate guidelines on the development of scientific stations. The coastal region must be regarded as critical habitat. A comprehensive conservation strategy is required with a broader network of protected areas giving full consideration to marine as well as terrestrial areas. Copies of the full working group reports have been deposited with IUCN and SCAR.     

Chattanooga shale exploitation and the aquatic environment: The critical issues

Early identification of the critical environmental issues arising from new energy technologies is needed to ensure adequate consideration of these issues in all phases of research and development. This study examines the potential hazards to aquatic ecosystems from large-scale exploitation (190,000 Mg/day) of the Chattanooga Shale Formation, an immense reserve of oil shale and uranium in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Using existing data on regional ecology, hydrology, mining operations, and raw and spent shale chemistry, we identified two major, related environmental issues: (1) the potential for extensive adverse effects on aquatic communities through degradation of water quality and habitat; and (2) the potential conflict between the requirements for shale exploitation, and the habitat and water quality needs of threatened or endangered species. Specific hazards to aquatic ecosystems include erosion, sedimentation, acid mine drainage, raw and spent shale leachates, and surface disposal of immense quantities of solid wastes. Twelve of 19 federally designated, threatened or endangered fish and mollusks in the shale-bearing region were identified as known or recent inhabitants of the counties believed to be most favorable for the exploitation of shale. Of these, five species occur as single populations or are limited to a single river system. The potential for adverse effects on these species is greatest in the counties near the Tennessee-Alabama state line. Future research needs include physical, chemical, and toxicological characterizations of shale leachates and studies of the transport and fate of leachable contaminants. Such research can provide the guidance necessary to minimize impacts on aquatic communities resulting from extraction, retorting, and disposal of shale.     

海州湾保护区海洋环境质量综合评价

海洋环境质量综合评价是开展海洋环境保护和管理的基础和依据。以海州湾海洋保护区为研究区，结合国内海洋环境调查现状，利用层次分析法构建了以生物要素为主、物理化学要素为辅的海洋环境质量综合评价指标体系。参考国内外相关研究，将海洋环境质量等级划分为“优良中差劣”。收集了海州湾保护区2005~2011年环境调查资料，结合国家相关标准和统计数据序列综合确定各评价指标等级判定标准。利用2006年8月、2009年12月和2011年3月的调查数据对海州湾保护区环境质量进行评价和分析。评价结果显示综合指数值分别为0608、0465、0638，保护区环境质量整体处于等级良，且近岸环境较离岸海域差，较客观地反应了该区域的环境状况。此外，海洋生物物种丰度和生物多样性呈现一定程度的季节波动，尤以冬季底栖生物较为明显，反应了区域气候特点对生态系统生物要素的影响。在生态环境评价以及评价标准的选择中需注意季节变化可能产生的干扰；开展环境质量评价时应充分注意调查时间选择的代表性，方能客观有效地反映区域环境质量状况     

The Antarctic ecosystem

The Antarctic region comprises the continent and surrounding sea south of the Antarctic Convergence, where cold Antarctic upper water sinks and mixes with warmer sub-Antarctic water. The continent, nearly centered on the South Geographic Pole, is isolated by the Southern Ocean from other land masses. The continent's mean elevation is about 2,000 m and 98% of the surface is mantled by 2,000 m or more of glacial ice which flows toward coastal outlets to the sea. The ice sheet is pierced by mountain summits, some approaching altitudes near 5,000 m. The continental shelf mean width is 30 km. On its seaward edge the shelf is at depths of 400 to over 600 m. The total area of ice and snow surface presented by the region is doubled by the maximum extent of sea ice each year. The Antarctic Continent is the principal heat sink of the world weather machine. Upwelling areas of the Southern Ocean recycle nutrients and stimulate the marine ecosystem, and seasonal changes in extent of sea ice contribute to one of the greatest annual pulses in marine organic production. The fish fauna has only 120 species but these belong to 29 families. The zooplankton is rich in several endemic crustacea, notably the Antarctic krill. The only vertebrates on land come from the sea onto shore areas and fast ice, including colonies of breeding penguins and associated birds as well as seals. Closed communities of vascular plants and cryptogams occur on sub-Antarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula, but in the entire continental Antarctic the vegetation is desert-like, composed of scattered mosses, lichens, and terrestrial algae. Exposed surfaces of crystalline rocks harbor “endolithic microbial life,” and a few species of invertebrates dwell on favorably exposed soil and under rocks. The ice Plateau is as nearly abiotic or sterile as any area on the earth's surface. The physical and biotic features of Antarctica represent extreme conditions. The continent was untouched by man until the past two centuries and remains nearly pristine. It yields key information about cold environments and global environmental systems including evidences of change, and deserves protection from unnecessary disturbance.     

Social preferences towards ecosystem services provided by cloud forests in the neotropics: implications for conservation strategies

Despite the importance of neotropical cloud forests as providers of ecosystem services to society, they are one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world. We analysed the importance of three cloud forest reserves in central Colombia as providers of ecosystem services, as well as the social support to conservation actions in these ecosystems through willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to give up time (WTT) estimates. Our results highlight the high commitment of all users of the cloud forest areas towards the conservation of the ecosystem services provided by these strategic ecosystems. We found that the most important perceived ecosystem services were water supply and habitat maintenance for species. Our findings also suggest that the respondents’ ecological knowledge (measured as the awareness of the ecosystem services supplied by cloud forests) was an important factor in determining both WTP and WTT for conserving cloud forests. Moreover, our results indicate that WTT should be a viable technique to explore individual preferences of different stakeholders towards conservation activities in cloud forests. Based on our results, we propose a conservation strategy of cloud forests that considers different users’ socio-economic and environmental characteristics, in which both experimental and experiential knowledge should be incorporated in order to promote collective action.     

基于水生态功能区的巢湖环湖带生态服务功能评价

水生态功能区被认为是流域生态环境保护、治理与修复的基本单元,以其为基础进行生态服务功能评估对于流域内的土地利用结构优化配置、生态环境保护、治理与修复等都有重要的意义。选取巢湖环湖带,采用物质量的方法,对其12种生态服务功能进行评价,其中陆域生态系统4种,水域生态系统8种。研究结果表明:(1)研究区生态系统服务功能空间差异明显,南部和东北部较高,西北部和东南部较低;而研究区单位面积生态服务功能西部较高,东部较低;(2)生态服务功能总量较高的区域,其单位面积生态服务功能并不一定高;(3)环湖带生态系统服务功能的管理和恢复既要考虑生态服务功能总量的大小,也要考虑单位面积生态服务功能的大小,依据实际情况区别对待,生态服务功能较强的地区,应积极发挥其生态功能的优势,在保护与治理并重的情况下充分发挥其生态服务功能;生态服务功能较弱的地区,应采取一定的措施,在保护的基础上对其生态服务功能进行恢复。     

Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems

The Maritime and Continental Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems are considered in the context of environmental impacts-habitat destruction, alien introductions, and pollution. Their ability to recover from perturbation is discussed in the light of present scientific knowledge, and the methods used to control impacts are reviewed. It is concluded that techniques of waste disposal are still inadequate, adequate training in environmental and conservation principles for Antarctic personnel in many countries is lacking, and scientific investigations may be a much more serious threat than tourism to the integrity of these ecosystems. Some priorities crucial to future management are suggested.     

Risk Assessment of Carbon Sequestration for Terrestrial Ecosystems in China

Climate change will alter the capacity of carbon sequestration,and the risk assessment of carbon sequestration for terrestrial ecosystems will be helpful to the decision-making for climate change countermeasures and international climate negotiations.Based on the net ecosystem productivity of terrestrial ecosystems simulated by Atmosphere Vegetation Integrated Model,each grid of the risk criterion was set by time series trend analysis.Then the risks of carbon sequestration of terrestrial ecosystems were investigated.The results show that,in the IPCCSRES-B2 climate scenario,climate change will bring risks of carbon sequestration,and the high-risk level will dominate terrestrial ecosystems.The risk would expand with the increase of warming degree.By the end of the long-term of this century,about 60% of the whole country will face the risk;Northwest China,mountainous areas in Northeast China,middle and lower reaches plain of Yangtze River areas,Southwest China and Southeast China tend to be extremely vulnerable.Risk levels in most regions are likely to grow with the increase of warming degree,and this increase will mainly occur during the near-term to mid-term.Northwest China will become an area of high risks,and deciduous coniferous forests,temperate mixed forests and desert grassland tend to be extremely vulnerable.     

Risk Assessment of Carbon Sequestration for Terrestrial Ecosystems in China

Abstract

Climate change will alter the capacity of carbon sequestration, and the risk assessment of carbon sequestration for terrestrial ecosystems will be helpful to the decision-making for climate change countermeasures and international climate negotiations. Based on the net ecosystem productivity of terrestrial ecosystems simulated by Atmosphere Vegetation Integrated Model, each grid of the risk criterion was set by time series trend analysis. Then the risks of carbon sequestration of terrestrial ecosystems were investigated. The results show that, in the IPCCSRES-B2 climate scenario, climate change will bring risks of carbon sequestration, and the high-risk level will dominate terrestrial ecosystems. The risk would expand with the increase of warming degree. By the end of the long-term of this century, about 60% of the whole country will face the risk; Northwest China, mountainous areas in Northeast China, middle and lower reaches plain of Yangtze River areas, Southwest China and Southeast China tend to be extremely vulnerable. Risk levels in most regions are likely to grow with the increase of warming degree, and this increase will mainly occur during the near-term to mid-term. Northwest China will become an area of high risks, and deciduous coniferous forests, temperate mixed forests and desert grassland tend to be extremely vulnerable.     

From frontier economics to an ecological economics of the oceans and coasts

Ecological economics is a field of enquiry that has had, with a few exceptions, an almost entirely terrestrial focus. Given the fundamental ecological and economic importance of oceanic and coastal ecosystems, and the accelerating deterioration of these ecosystems, we argue that there is an urgent case to redress this imbalance. In so doing, the scope of ecological economics will be extended and compelling insights developed and applied to better understand and govern marine systems. Although we acknowledge that there is no unequivocal or unitary view of what might constitute an ecological economics of the oceans and coasts, we assert that it should consist of at least ‘four cornerstones’: (1) sustainability as the normative goal; (2) an approach that sees the socio-economic system as a sub-system of the global ecological system; (3) a complex systems approach; and (4) transdisciplinarity and methodological pluralism. Using these four cornerstones, we identify a future research agenda for an ecological economics of the oceans and coasts. Specifically, we conclude that ecological economists must work with other disciplines, especially those involved in marine policy and practice, to move from a ‘frontier economics’ (which has dominated marine management) to entrench an ‘ecological economics’ of the oceans and coasts as the dominant paradigm.     

Direct and indirect effects of climate and fishing on changes in coastal ecosystem services: a historical perspective from the North Sea

Humanity depends on the marine environment for a range of vital ecosystem services, at global (e.g. climate regulation), regional (e.g. commercial fisheries) and local scales (e.g. coastal defence and recreation). At the same time, marine ecosystems have been exploited for centuries, and many systems today are under stress from multiple sources. Recent studies have shown how both climate change and fishing have caused long-term changes in the marine environment. However, there is still poor understanding of how these changes influence change in coastal ecosystem services. In this paper, an integrated modelling approach is used to assess how the final delivery of marine ecosystem services to coastal communities is influenced by the direct and indirect effects of changes in ecosystem processes brought about by climate and human impacts, using fisheries of the North Sea region as a case study. Partial least squares path analysis is used to explore the relationships between drivers of change, marine ecosystem processes and services (landings). A simple conceptual model with four variables—climate, fishing effort, ecosystem process and ecosystem services—is applied to the English North Sea using historic ecological, climatic and fisheries time series spanning 1924–2010 to identify the multiple pathways that might exist. As expected, direct and indirect links between fishing effort, ecosystem processes and service provision were significant. However, links between climate and ecosystem processes were weak. This paper highlights how path analysis can be used for analysing long-term temporal links between ecosystem processes and services following a simplified pathway.     

Quantifying changes to historic fish habitat extent on north coast NSW floodplains,Australia

Global degradation of coastal ecosystems is influencing the provision of ecosystem services, including fisheries maintenance services. Degradation of the Australian coastal zone and its resources following European occupation has been recognised for some time. This includes the loss of ecologically important coastal wetlands, which have strong trophic and habitat links to fisheries. In NSW, structural flood mitigation works are a principle driver of the decline of coastal wetlands; however, little action has been taken to quantify the extent of decline due to limited information of the pre-European settlement extent of coastal wetlands. We use spatial data sets in GIS to quantify prime fish habitat and calculate the loss of fish habitat for the large coastal floodplains of northern NSW, which are significant contributors to the commercial and recreational fisheries of NSW. The technique is validated by comparison with early maps of wetland distribution. We identified pre-European distribution of available fish habitat of approximately 477,000 ha, of which 87,000 ha was identified as prime fish habitat. Approximately 62,000 ha of prime fish habitat was impacted by drainage of the coastal floodplains in association with flood mitigation works which intensified in the mid-1950s and were largely completed by 1971, equating to a loss of approximately 72 % of prime fish habitat. The declining value of the ecosystem services provided by prime fish habitat following drainage is likely to be substantial. Some actions have taken place to restore the functions of this habitat although significant opportunities remain to reverse this decline through management actions that restore natural drainage and reinstate tidal exchange. These actions become even more important as pressures on coastal wetlands increase with climate change and associated sea-level rise.     

基于海洋生态产品的海岛旅游绿色发展经济激励额度评估

海洋生态系统为人类提供了环境友好型海产品、可持续海洋原材料、可持续基因资源、生态旅游产品、海景观房地产等海洋生态标签生态产品和减缓温室效应产品、净化环境要素产品、灾害控制产品等海洋关键环境要素生态产品。本文以海洋生态产品理论为基础,将海岛旅游绿色发展含义界定为旅游目的地环境友好型海产品的生产与消费,旅游目的地海洋生态系统与森林生态系统持续稳定地提供核心生态系统服务和旅游业低碳排放;并运用海洋渔业生态标签制度(MFELS)、生态系统服务付费(PES)和市场替换法(MRM),以山东省长岛县为案例地,以问卷调查和访谈调查获取的数据为基础,对海岛旅游绿色发展经济激励额度进行了评估。结果表明:(1)运用MFELS可获得0.207 0×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中山东省短途客源地游客、京津冀晋豫中途客源地游客和其他省市区长途客源地游客平均每人次分别承担13.26元、17.57元和17.56元;(2)运用PES可获得0.673 6×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中短途游客、中途游客和长途游客平均每人次分别承担43.44元、57.89元和54.42元;(3)运用MRM可获得0.154 1×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中各类游客平均每人次分别承担0.00元、14.59元和34.58元;(4)运用MFELS、PES和MRM可获得1.034 7×10~8元/a的经济激励资金,其中各类游客平均每人次分别承担56.70元、90.05元和106.56元。研究建议:各客源地游客承担海岛旅游绿色发展经济激励资金应考虑区域的差异性特征。     

The status and conservation of Antarctic seals and seabirds: A review

Present threats to Antarctic seabirds and seals when ashore include disturbance and habitat destruction (some directly caused by humans; most through the introduction of rabbits and other grazers; also seal damage to seabird habitats) and serious predation by introduced rats and cats at sub-Antarctic islands. In the marine environment threats are posed by pesticides (widespread but at low levels), pollution (mainly a potential problem associated with oil exploration), incidental takes (trivial now, except perhaps for some albatrosses) and competition with commercial fisheries, which is reviewed in detail. Even in areas where harvesting of fish may be exceeding sustainable yield, predator-prey interaction data are inadequate to assess the level, or significance, of the effect on predators. Present krill harvests are small but likely to increase, especially in favoured areas; species of potential vulnerability are noted. Existing legislation offers excellent protection for wildlife, but formally protected areas by no means cover the major breeding concentrations of seabirds and especially seals in all sectors and zones. There is a need for a comprehensive review, which in some areas will require extensive survey work. Programmes for the control and elimination of alien predators need proper planning and major support. Marine reserves may be of limited benefit to pelagic seals and seabirds, and further research in some key areas is needed. Realistic environmental impact assessments will require more detailed information on predator distribution and movements than is available now; appropriate surveys and research need starting. Sensitive management of marine fisheries is difficult with the present level of quantitative data on predator-prey interactions (though this is better than in many other pelagic systems). Difficulties in monitoring aspects of predator biology as indices of the state of prey stocks are reviewed.     

Effects of climate change on species distribution, community structure, and conservation of birds in protected areas in Colombia

Climate change is expected to cause shifts in species distributions worldwide, threatening their viability due to range reductions and altering their representation in protected areas. Biodiversity hotspots might be particularly vulnerable to climate change because they hold large numbers of species with small ranges which could contract even further as species track their optimal habitat. In this study, we assessed the extent to which climate change could cause distribution shifts in threatened and range-restricted birds in Colombia, a megadiverse region that includes the Tropical Andes and Tumbes-Choco-Magdalena hotspots. To evaluate how climate change might influence species in this region, we developed species distribution models using MAXENT. Species are projected to lose on average between 33 and 43 % of their total range under future climate, and up to 18 species may lose their climatically suitable range completely. Species whose suitable climate is projected to disappear occur in mountainous regions, particularly isolated ranges such as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Depending on the representation target considered, between 46 and 96 % of the species evaluated may be adequately represented in protected areas. In the future, the fraction of species potentially adequately represented is projected to decline to 30–95 %. Additional protected areas may help to retain representativeness of protected areas, but monitoring of species projected to have the largest potential declines in range size will be necessary to assess the need of implementing active management strategies to counteract the effects of climate change.     

Integrated and comprehensive estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from land systems

Exchanges of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems involve a complex set of interactions affected by both natural and management processes. Understanding these processes is important for managing ecosystem productivity and sustainability. Management processes also affect the net outcome of exchanges of greenhouse gases between terrestrial ecosystems and the atmosphere. In developing a national carbon accounting system (NCAS) for Australia to account for emissions and removal of greenhouse gases to and from the atmosphere, a carbon:nitrogen mass balance ecosystem model (FullCAM) was developed. The FullCAM model is a hybrid of empirical and process modelling. The approach enables application to a wide range of natural resource management issues, because it is at land-management-relevant spatial and temporal resolution and captures the main process and management drivers. The scenario-prediction capability can be used to determine the emissions consequences of different management activities. Because, in Australia, emissions of greenhouse gases are closely related to the retention of dead organic matter and the availability of nitrogen for plant growth, the carbon and nitrogen cycling as modelled are good indicators of ecosystem productivity and condition. The NCAS also emphasizes the advantages of a comprehensive and integrated approach to developing a continental scale ecosystem-modelling system that has relevance both to estimation of greenhouse gas emissions and sustainable management of natural resources.     

Impacts of climate change on the distribution of species and communities in the Chilean Mediterranean ecosystem

The Mediterranean region of Chile is considered a biodiversity hot spot. An increase in temperature and decrease in precipitation, as projected for the end of this century by global circulation models, would likely change the distribution of the sclerophyllous thorny shrubland and woodland. In order to assess those potential impacts, the MAXENT algorithm was used to project potential changes in the distribution of the Mediterranean ecosystem. Ecological niche models were fitted and used to project the potential distribution of these forest ecosystems by the end of the century. Projections were made using data from the PRECIS model for the A2 and B2 climate change scenarios and two strategies of occupancy: free migration and non-migration. Distribution models of sclerophyllous, woodland and shrubland performed accurately representing current species’ distribution. When we assume non-migration responses under climate change scenarios, results reveal a decrease in the distribution area for all the species. The areas where the highest reduction in a suitable environment was found are located along the coastline, where higher temperature increases have been projected. For native ecosystems from the Andean Range region, such as communities dominated by thorny species, a stable habitat was found, associated with a higher adaptation capability to future climatic projections. Hence, in the future, buffer zones originated by “topo-climatic” conditions might play a key role in protecting Central Chile biodiversity.     

Heat waves and floods in urban areas: a policy-oriented review of ecosystem services

Urbanisation is increasing and today more than a half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. Cities, especially those where urbanisation is un-planned or poorly planned, are increasingly vulnerable to hydro-meteorological hazards such as heat waves and floods. Urban areas tend to degrade the environment, fragmenting and isolating ecosystems, compromising their capacity to provide services. The regulating role of ecosystems in buffering hydro-meteorological hazards and reducing urban vulnerability has not received adequate policy attention until now. Whereas there is a wide body of studies in the specialised biological and ecological literature about particular urban ecosystem features and the impacts of hazards upon people and infrastructures, there is no policy-driven overview looking holistically at the ways in which ecosystem features can be managed by cities to reduce their vulnerability to hazards. Using heat waves and floods as examples, this review article identifies the aggravating factors related to urbanisation, the various regulating ecosystem services that buffer cities from hydro-meteorological impacts as well as the impacts of the hazards on the ecosystem. The review also assesses how different cities have attempted to manage related ecosystem services and draws policy-relevant conclusions.