The Antarctic Treaty System: Environmental protection,conservation, and the question of competing use

The Antarctic Treaty System consists of the Treaty itself, over 130 recommendations made under it, the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Consultations have been held among parties to the Antarctic Treaty to elaborate an Antarctic minerals regime. It has become clear that how to deal with issues of competing use has begun to emerge as an important political question. In such a context the development of an Antarctic conservation strategy is a potentially helpful step. Competition of use, when it occurs, will be localised and different in different areas. In only tiny parts will it be severe, but these parts may be the biologically richest coastal areas. Various activities and their possible interactions are considered. It is concluded that any arrangement of Antarctic activities which given an automatic priority of one over others is wrong. Similarly, no activity should be subservient to all others. An Antarctic conservation strategy needs to be developed and in its operation the concept of adaptive environmental assessment and management needs to be applied. Within the Antarctic Treaty System there are moves towards assessment. What is needed now is a framework within which such concepts can operate; that is, a conservation and environmental strategy.     

Antarctic science and conservation — The historical background

James Cook in his voyage of 1774–1775 is generally credited with the discovery of the Antarctic. He was soon followed by fur sealers who by the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century had severely reduced the stocks of fur seals. Besides sealers, there were purely scientific expeditions to the Antarctic in the early 1800s. Exploratory whaling voyages began in 1873–1874, but the Antarctic whaling industry was not established till 1904. Whaling developed quickly, despite attempts to control its growth. These were frustrated by the invention in 1925 of factory ships which could operate on the high seas. Successive attempts to regulate whaling were unsuccessful, and following the reduction of the stocks of whales, the industry has collapsed. The development of whaling was accompanied by scientific exploration and research. The “Heroic Age” of Antarctic exploration saw the successful discovery of the Pole by the Norwegian Amundsen in 1911. Antarctic exploration developed between the two World Wars. After the Second World War there was a resurgence of interest in the Antarctic. Territorial claims caused political tensions, but these were temporarily assuaged during the International Geophysical Year, 1957–1958, when 12 nations cooperated to establish 47 research stations in the Antarctic. This scientific initiative was so successful that steps were taken to preserve this opportunity for scientific cooperation under the aegis of the Antarctic Treaty, signed at Washington in 1959. This treaty, together with two other associated instruments, provides the legal framework for present-day conservation in the Antarctic.     

Conservation and the Antarctic environment: The working group reports of the joint IUCN/SCAR Symposium on the scientific requirements for Antarctic conservation

Six working groups were set up at the joint IUCN/SCAR Symposium on the scientific requirements for Antarctic conservation. These were charged with (i) identifying gaps in the scientific understanding of ecosystems that inhibit rational management, and (ii) considering whether present conservation practices were taking enough account of what is known of the region, particularly with regard to protected areas. There is still a need for synthesis and further work on stocks and the life history of krill in the pelagic ecosystem. Monitoring strategies are not clear and biomass determinations are difficult and costly. Information on squid is lacking. Although there is much information on higher consumers there is a gap in knowledge of dynamic ecological processes, particularly in winter. Studies of crabeater seals deserve priority. The network of existing protected areas is inadequate for preserving all species of birds, seals and whales; new criteria are needed for effective conservation. On land, the Agreed Measures provide an adequate framework for conservation, though additional steps are needed to ensure adherence to their provisions. Selection criteria are deficient. Additional measures are required; these include the establishment of Conservation Areas, general provision for the protection of biota, and a code of conduct for all activities. Exploitation of marine mammals (except the minke whale) has ceased. Monitoring whales presents difficulties. Fish stocks are significantly exploited and better monitoring is required. Prediction of trends in krill catches is difficult but there has been a large drop in krill fishing effort. Localised effects on predators could occur with catches of a few million metric tons. Commercial mineral exploitation in the Antarctic is a long way in the future but exploitation could result from political motives. There is a need for a data base for the design of investigations and impact assessment. Operational hazards need to be modelled in advance. It is important not to go too far too fast. Antarctica is unique in its control measures and their implementation. However, Specially Protected Areas lack management plans and management plans at Sites of Special Scientific Interest are not consistent. There are inadequate guidelines on the development of scientific stations. The coastal region must be regarded as critical habitat. A comprehensive conservation strategy is required with a broader network of protected areas giving full consideration to marine as well as terrestrial areas. Copies of the full working group reports have been deposited with IUCN and SCAR.     

Criteria for protected areas and other conservation measures in the Antarctic region

The Antarctic region is threatened by three major anthropogenic influences: climatic change brought about by increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, the effects of persistent pollutants carried into the region via atmosphere and ocean, and the increase in Man's activities. Vulnerable ecosystems can be considered as those which are under direct pressure from Man's activities, whereas fragile ecosystems are the more likely to suffer irreversible change when perturbed, but are not necessarily threatened at present. Three of the main habitat types, terrestrial, inland waters, and islands, are likely to be fragile. However, all these can be conserved reasonably adequately with a system of protected and managed areas, so long as the area covered is adequate and representative. The fourth habitat type, the oceanic ecosystem, contains few fragile elements because it is dominated by the highly dynamic physical oceanic processes. Elements of the ecosystem are vulnerable to further exploitation, and although only the whales and some of the fish stocks can be regarded as fragile, there is considerable uncertainty as what synergistic effects exploitation of apparently key elements of the ecosystem, such as the krill, will have on other important components of the communities. The highly dynamic structure of oceanic environments renders the concept of conservation based on limited protected areas developed for terrestrial environments ineffective in the majority of marine environments. Instead the whole marine environment of the Antarctic region must be considered to be a single entity and managed as such.     

Biodiversity provides ecosystem services: scientific results versus stakeholders’ knowledge

Exploiting the complementarities between biological components in agricultural systems is presented as a solution to increase food production and decrease environmental problems. This amounts to maximizing the ecosystem services (i.e., the benefits human obtain from ecosystems) provided by biodiversity at the expense of the disservices (i.e., the nuisances human obtain from ecosystems). In recent years, science has produced significant results supporting this strategy, but their application in the field is dependent on stakeholders’ knowledge. This article therefore addresses two questions: What do stakeholders know about the services and disservices provided by biodiversity? Does this knowledge agree with scientific results? We address these questions by combining a literature review of 39 scientific articles and interviews with 8 farmers and 3 farm advisors in France. Scientific results and stakeholders’ knowledge both indicate that within- and between-field plant biodiversity have a positive effect on the provision of ecosystem services. For instance, it can reduce inputs and give higher and more stable plant production. It may even improve farmers’ management conditions. However, our work revealed two gaps in our scientific knowledge. Only 3 scientific articles connected ecosystem services with plant biodiversity at the farm scale or between fields, while stakeholders did so for 43 % of the services they mentioned. Similarly, management services concerned about one-third of the services mentioned by stakeholders but were addressed in only 3 scientific articles. Stakeholders’ expertise can thus help us to prioritize research options in order to simultaneously fill scientific gaps and produce knowledge relevant to practice.     

Indicator based approach for monitoring natural resources of village ecosystems: findings from select ecosystems of southern India

Indian village ecosystems are diverse with respect to population pressures, agricultural activities and production, livestock composition, energy sources, economics and infrastructural capabilities. Natural resource degradation is a major global concern and the factors and processes leading to degradation are regional and scale up from the micro levels such as village ecosystems. There is need for integrated multidisciplinary approaches for monitoring the resource status and environmental issues at the decentralized level. This paper presents an approach to assess village ecosystems using a set of key indicators developed and tested across fourteen diverse village ecosystems of the Southern India. The concept of ecosystem services associated with village ecosystems of India has been described and adopted to identify indicators and assess issues and trends. Comparison across villages has been demonstrated and the indicators successfully reflected the key environmental issues at each village level as well as differences across villages. We also report unique cases of stabilized land use and ‘desakota-like’ trends from village ecosystem studied.     

Governance objectives and instruments,ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation: the Chianti case study

The complex relationships between governance processes, ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation are receiving growing attention by the scientific community. The scope of research in this field is generally that of identifying main governance factors leading to success or failure in the sustainable management of ecosystems and biodiversity conservation, so to develop appropriate sectoral and intersectoral policies fostering sustainable use of natural resources. In this paper, a methodological approach is first presented and then applied to analyse the impacts of agriculture and rural policies on agro-ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation in the central hills of Tuscany, the Chianti area. This approach is focusing in particular on governance objectives and instruments used in the management of ecosystem services. A share-farming system based on multifunctional agriculture ruled Chianti until World War II. Then, after the abandonment of rural areas by share-farmers, governance objectives and ecosystem management were oriented towards the production of commodities such as wine and olive oil almost ignoring the provision of public goods such as soil erosion and water run-off control and biodiversity conservation. In order to achieve a more sustainable ecosystems management in Chianti, there is the need to develop a multifaceted governance strategy to reward appropriately the supplying of environmental goods and services by farmers.     

Training future experts in “biodiversity and ecosystem services”: a progress report

Biodiversity is essential for multiple aspects of human life and well-being, but many current assessments of the functioning of biodiversity and ecosystems, understanding of risks posed by environmental change and the best practice of their management of ecosystems are lacking a unified scientific and conceptual basis. Methods such as scenario analysis, and terms such as ecosystem services, are widely used, but their meaning is understood in many different ways depending on context, user needs and experience of researchers. In order to advance the conceptual basis for ecosystem analysis and management in a rapidly changing world, as well as the ability of young scientists to reflect upon these concepts, we have organised five 2-week-long summer schools in Peyresq, a remote village in the Southern French Alps. In total 173 participants have worked intensively with 69 experienced researchers and a team of conveners and tutors in order to discuss a broad range of views on topics on ecosystem analysis and functioning. Topics ranged from conditions of and threats to various ecosystems due to environmental change, models and scenarios for assessment, stakeholder perceptions and needs for information, to the social and economic contexts for biodiversity. We report our experience from these schools, present the training concept which has emerged from them and suggest lines of further development.

Tracing operational conditions for the Ecologically Sustainable Economic Development: the Pareto optimality and the preservation of the biological crucial levels

The operational designing of Environmentally Sustainable Economic Development (ESED) emerges as an urgent and demanding task. Even though ESED has paved the way for thought-provoking and constructive scientific dialogue, appeal for designing an operational ESED is still lagging behind the needs of contemporary societies, leaving much to be desired. With this in mind, the present paper will aim at delineating principles for the operational application of ESED. First, the preservation of crucial properties of environmental functions and ecosystems, emerges as a prime condition of ESED. The second condition concerns the provision of the economic process with sufficient natural inputs; in this context, the paper intends to trace certain operational tenets governing the use of natural resources. Finally, the appropriate institutional settings for the operational design of ESED are traced. Readers should send their comments on this paper to BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue     

Occurrence,fate and effects of azoxystrobin in aquatic ecosystems: A review

The use of pesticides for crop protection may result in the presence of toxic residues in environmental matrices. In the aquatic environment, pesticides might freely dissolve in the water or bind to suspended matter and to the sediments, and might be transferred to the organisms' tissues during bioaccumulation processes, resulting in adverse consequences to non-target species. One such group of synthetic organic pesticides widely used worldwide to combat pathogenic fungi affecting plants is the strobilurin chemical group. Whereas they are designed to control fungal pathogens, their general modes of action are not specific to fungi. Consequently, they can be potentially toxic to a wide range of non-target organisms. The present work had the intent to conduct an extensive literature review to find relevant research on the occurrence, fate and effects of azoxystrobin, the first patent of the strobilurin compounds, in aquatic ecosystems in order to identify strengths and gaps in the scientific database. Analytical procedures and existing legislation and regulations were also assessed. Data gathered in the present review revealed that analytical reference standards for the most relevant environmental metabolites of azoxystrobin are needed. Validated confirmatory methods for complex matrices, like sediment and aquatic organisms' tissues, are very limited. Important knowledge of base-line values of azoxystrobin and its metabolites in natural tropical and estuarine/marine ecosystems is lacking. Moreover, some environmental concentrations of azoxystrobin found in the present review are above the Regulatory Acceptable Concentration (RAC) in what concerns risk to aquatic invertebrates and the No Observed Ecologically Adverse Effect Concentration (NOEAEC) reported for freshwater communities. The present review also showed that there are very few data on azoxystrobin toxicity to different aquatic organisms, especially in what concerns estuarine/marine organisms. Besides, toxicity studies mostly address azoxystrobin and usually neglect the more relevant environmental metabolites. Further work is also required in what concerns effects of exposure to multi-stressors, e.g. pesticide mixtures. Even though Log K_ow for azoxystrobin and R234886, the main metabolite of azoxystrobin in water, are below 3, the bio-concentration factor and the bioaccumulation potential for azoxystrobin are absent in the literature. Moreover, no single study on bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes was found in the present review.     

The Antarctic ecosystem

The Antarctic region comprises the continent and surrounding sea south of the Antarctic Convergence, where cold Antarctic upper water sinks and mixes with warmer sub-Antarctic water. The continent, nearly centered on the South Geographic Pole, is isolated by the Southern Ocean from other land masses. The continent's mean elevation is about 2,000 m and 98% of the surface is mantled by 2,000 m or more of glacial ice which flows toward coastal outlets to the sea. The ice sheet is pierced by mountain summits, some approaching altitudes near 5,000 m. The continental shelf mean width is 30 km. On its seaward edge the shelf is at depths of 400 to over 600 m. The total area of ice and snow surface presented by the region is doubled by the maximum extent of sea ice each year. The Antarctic Continent is the principal heat sink of the world weather machine. Upwelling areas of the Southern Ocean recycle nutrients and stimulate the marine ecosystem, and seasonal changes in extent of sea ice contribute to one of the greatest annual pulses in marine organic production. The fish fauna has only 120 species but these belong to 29 families. The zooplankton is rich in several endemic crustacea, notably the Antarctic krill. The only vertebrates on land come from the sea onto shore areas and fast ice, including colonies of breeding penguins and associated birds as well as seals. Closed communities of vascular plants and cryptogams occur on sub-Antarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula, but in the entire continental Antarctic the vegetation is desert-like, composed of scattered mosses, lichens, and terrestrial algae. Exposed surfaces of crystalline rocks harbor “endolithic microbial life,” and a few species of invertebrates dwell on favorably exposed soil and under rocks. The ice Plateau is as nearly abiotic or sterile as any area on the earth's surface. The physical and biotic features of Antarctica represent extreme conditions. The continent was untouched by man until the past two centuries and remains nearly pristine. It yields key information about cold environments and global environmental systems including evidences of change, and deserves protection from unnecessary disturbance.     

河口三角洲地表水文连通性研究进展

三角洲通常位于河流与湖泊、海洋等大型地表水体的过渡带,分布全球约8%人口。受地势低缓、流域来沙减少和海平面上升等多因素作用,三角洲系统被认为是诸多地表类型中高度敏感和脆弱的地带。近年来,地表水文连通性成为三角洲水文水动力领域新的热点问题。通过国内外相关文献调研,系统阐述了水文连通性概念、三角洲地表水文连通性组成以及三角洲形态和水文连通性的联系。研究表明:三角洲地表水文连通性可分为结构连通性、功能连通性和过程连通性;基于图论方法的结构连通性仅表征河网在三角洲水文连通性的作用,而功能连通性和过程连通性反映水文水动力要素的空间分布及其与气象等环境要素的耦合关系,但亟需有效的野外观测和调查数据;三角洲形态与水文连通性存在一定联系,部分形态指标可用于刻画三角洲地表水文连通程度。因三角洲具有高度时空异质性和复杂地形地貌等特点,从学科发展趋势和应用需求的角度出发,未来应综合采用野外观测、数理统计和数值模拟等多学科交叉的研究策略,为三角洲湿地生态系统应对当前快速变化环境等重大问题提供科学依据。     

基于水足迹的流域生态补偿标准模型研究

流域水资源是一种公共物品,其系统的整体性以及资源外部性等特征要求各相关区域应共同承担环境保护.如何衡量各区域水资源开发利用与环保投入的关系,建立合理的生态补偿标准模型,已成为流域管理研究领域普遍关注的问题.本文运用水足迹理论和方法,界定流域水足迹内涵,通过反映流域沿岸各区域水生态服务耗费情况判断分析水生态系统安全状态,提出流域生态补偿标准计量流程及不同情况下的流域生态补偿标准测算模型,从而客观、准确地量化流域生态补偿额度,为管理者正确分析和解决流域各区域间利益冲突提供科学的决策依据与支持.同时本文以碧流河为案例,收集并分析了2002-2006年间碧流河沿岸各行政区水足迹和环保投入情况,理清各区域生态系统状态及相互关系,计算补偿标准,进而验证模型的可行性.     

Harmonising conflicts between science,regulation, perception and environmental impact: The case of soil conditioners from bioenergy

As the global population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050, humanity needs to balance an ever increasing demand for food, energy and natural resources, with sustainable management of ecosystems and the vital services that they provide. The intensification of agriculture, including the use of fertilisers from finite sources, has resulted in extensive soil degradation, which has increased food production costs and CO₂ emissions, threatening food security. The Bioenergy sector has significant potential to contribute to the formation of a circular economy. This paper presents the scientific, regulatory and socioeconomic barriers to the use of the nutrient waste streams from biomass thermal conversion (ash) and anaerobic digestion (digestate) as sustainable soil amendments for use in place of traditional fertilisers. It is argued that whilst the ability of combined ash and digestate to remedy many threats to ecosystems and provide a market to incentivise the renewable bio-energy schemes is promising, a step-change is required to alter perceptions of ‘waste’, from an expensive problem, to a product with environmental and economic value. This can only be achieved by well-informed interactions between scientists, regulators and end users, to improve the spread and speed of innovation with this sector.     

神农架大九湖亚高山湿地环境背景与生态恢复

针对神农架林区大九湖亚高山湿地退化问题,在联合科学考察基础上,分析区域环境背景状况及生态退化原因,提出湿地保护、利用和生态恢复相关建议。调查内容包括：区域地形地貌状况,地质构造、地层、岩溶发育规律和落水洞分布状况,河流水系的分布、流量变化和水质状况,沼生植被的分布和演替规律,湿地演变过程及人类活动对湿地影响等方面。〖JP2〗研究发现：神农架大九湖湿地演变和土地利用结构变化受水利工程直接影响,1986年以来大规模开挖人工沟渠、疏通落水孔、排干沼泽开垦种植等活动,是湿地生态环境退化的重要因素;湿地退化主要反映为湖泊水面消失、沼泽湿地退化、湿地生态系统向陆生生态系统演化,生物多样性减少,泥炭资源遭受破坏,水质下降。根据调查结果,从原则、措施方案、管理机构、产业、资金等方面对大九湖湿地的保护、利用和生态恢复提出建议。     

Review and assessment of models used to predict the fate of radionuclides in lakes

A variety of models for predicting the behaviour of radionuclides in fresh water ecosystems have been developed and tested during recent decades within the framework of many international research projects. These models have been implemented in Computerised Decision Support Systems (CDSS) for assisting the appropriate management of fresh water bodies contaminated by radionuclides. The assessment of the state-of-the-art and the consolidation of these CDSSs has been envisaged, by the scientific community, as a primary necessity for the rationalisation of the sector. The classification of the approaches of the various models, the determination of their essential features, the identification of similarities and differences among them and the definition of their application domains are all essential for the harmonisation of the existing CDSSs and for the possible development and improvement of reference models that can be widely applied in different environmental conditions. The present paper summarises the results of the assessment and evaluation of models for predicting the behaviour of radionuclides in lacustrine ecosystems. Such models were developed and tested within major projects financed by the European Commission during its 4th Framework Programme (1994-1998). The work done during the recent decades by many modellers at an international level has produced some consolidated results that are widely accepted by most experts. Nevertheless, some new results have arisen from recent studies and certain model improvements are still necessary.     

Vegetation cover and rainfall seasonality impact nutrient loss via runoff and erosion in the Colombian Andes

Regional Environmental Change - Mountain ecosystems provide key services to a large portion of the population in the tropics. However, they are particularly vulnerable to regional environmental...     

近自然绿道建设在我国公路环境保护中的应用

道路是景观生态系统的主要组成部分之一,高密度的公路系统通过改变自然景观特征、干扰生态系统物质与信息交流、诱发水土流失、破坏动植物栖息环境、加快生物入侵对生态系统造成巨大影响。为了提高公路交通建设的科学技术水平,探索资源节约、环境友好的新型公路交通发展模式,通过湖北神宜公路改扩建工程项目的科学总结与理论提升,提出了“近自然绿道”的技术与工程措施。研究表明：围绕“路景相融、自然神宜”的建设目标,坚持“亲近自然、文化传承、科学创新、和谐发展”的公路建设新理念,实践“环境保护、交通安全、经济与社会和谐发展与教育示范”“近自然绿道”的和谐道路建设目标,可以较好地实现公路建设中的环境保护和经济发展双赢的目标,实现社会经济可持续发展     

自然保护区的建立与持续发展的关系

自然保护区的建立已被世界公认是一种保护自然资源最有效的方法之一。但是长期以来,人们把对维持生物种类的持续发展以及生态系统的完整性都归功于较为传统的封闭式保护。事实证明这已导致保护与持续发展长期处于矛盾状态而得不到解决。自从联合国教科文组织人与生物圈计划提出“生物圈保护区”的概念以来,打破了长期以来对自然保护区的封闭式管理。强调通过保护自然资源而发展和利用资源,并使这些资源能够持续发展。注重把自然保护与科学研究,环境监测、示范、环境教育与当地人民的参与结合起来。