Whales in the Antarctic ecosystem

The Antarctic whale fishery started at the beginning of this century and caused the successive depletion of the humpback, blue, fin, and sei whale stocks. These whales all migrate into the Antarctic to feed during the summer months on krill. Sperm whales have been a secondary target, and current whaling activity is dependent on the minke whale. Direct biological evidence, supported by official catch data, suggests that there has been an approximate doubling in the pregnancy rates of blue and fin whales, dating from the time of the major depletions of these populations in the 1930s. Sei whales show a similar change from 1945, which predates the main reduction in the numbers of this species in the 1960s. Evidence from earplug age readings of fin whales, supported by direct analysis of catch samples, suggests that the age at sexual maturity has also declined, from around 10-6 years, since the 1930s. Smaller changes are indicated in sei and minke whales, again before their direct exploitation. These changes imply that the whales are now growing faster than in earlier years, in addition to reproducing more frequently. This has been taken as evidence of a response by the reduced stocks having relatively more food. However, there is no evidence of increased recuitment, and doubts have been raised about the validity of the trends. Estimates have been made of the krill no longer consumed because of the reduced whale stocks, perhaps 147 × 10⁶ tonnes. But other members of the Antarctic ecosystem, such as seals and birds, may be increasing as a result, and so it is unclear if the whales can recover even under full protection.     

Criteria for protected areas and other conservation measures in the Antarctic region

The Antarctic region is threatened by three major anthropogenic influences: climatic change brought about by increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, the effects of persistent pollutants carried into the region via atmosphere and ocean, and the increase in Man's activities. Vulnerable ecosystems can be considered as those which are under direct pressure from Man's activities, whereas fragile ecosystems are the more likely to suffer irreversible change when perturbed, but are not necessarily threatened at present. Three of the main habitat types, terrestrial, inland waters, and islands, are likely to be fragile. However, all these can be conserved reasonably adequately with a system of protected and managed areas, so long as the area covered is adequate and representative. The fourth habitat type, the oceanic ecosystem, contains few fragile elements because it is dominated by the highly dynamic physical oceanic processes. Elements of the ecosystem are vulnerable to further exploitation, and although only the whales and some of the fish stocks can be regarded as fragile, there is considerable uncertainty as what synergistic effects exploitation of apparently key elements of the ecosystem, such as the krill, will have on other important components of the communities. The highly dynamic structure of oceanic environments renders the concept of conservation based on limited protected areas developed for terrestrial environments ineffective in the majority of marine environments. Instead the whole marine environment of the Antarctic region must be considered to be a single entity and managed as such.     

The status and conservation of Antarctic seals and seabirds: A review

Present threats to Antarctic seabirds and seals when ashore include disturbance and habitat destruction (some directly caused by humans; most through the introduction of rabbits and other grazers; also seal damage to seabird habitats) and serious predation by introduced rats and cats at sub-Antarctic islands. In the marine environment threats are posed by pesticides (widespread but at low levels), pollution (mainly a potential problem associated with oil exploration), incidental takes (trivial now, except perhaps for some albatrosses) and competition with commercial fisheries, which is reviewed in detail. Even in areas where harvesting of fish may be exceeding sustainable yield, predator-prey interaction data are inadequate to assess the level, or significance, of the effect on predators. Present krill harvests are small but likely to increase, especially in favoured areas; species of potential vulnerability are noted. Existing legislation offers excellent protection for wildlife, but formally protected areas by no means cover the major breeding concentrations of seabirds and especially seals in all sectors and zones. There is a need for a comprehensive review, which in some areas will require extensive survey work. Programmes for the control and elimination of alien predators need proper planning and major support. Marine reserves may be of limited benefit to pelagic seals and seabirds, and further research in some key areas is needed. Realistic environmental impact assessments will require more detailed information on predator distribution and movements than is available now; appropriate surveys and research need starting. Sensitive management of marine fisheries is difficult with the present level of quantitative data on predator-prey interactions (though this is better than in many other pelagic systems). Difficulties in monitoring aspects of predator biology as indices of the state of prey stocks are reviewed.     

Antarctic science and conservation — The historical background

James Cook in his voyage of 1774–1775 is generally credited with the discovery of the Antarctic. He was soon followed by fur sealers who by the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century had severely reduced the stocks of fur seals. Besides sealers, there were purely scientific expeditions to the Antarctic in the early 1800s. Exploratory whaling voyages began in 1873–1874, but the Antarctic whaling industry was not established till 1904. Whaling developed quickly, despite attempts to control its growth. These were frustrated by the invention in 1925 of factory ships which could operate on the high seas. Successive attempts to regulate whaling were unsuccessful, and following the reduction of the stocks of whales, the industry has collapsed. The development of whaling was accompanied by scientific exploration and research. The “Heroic Age” of Antarctic exploration saw the successful discovery of the Pole by the Norwegian Amundsen in 1911. Antarctic exploration developed between the two World Wars. After the Second World War there was a resurgence of interest in the Antarctic. Territorial claims caused political tensions, but these were temporarily assuaged during the International Geophysical Year, 1957–1958, when 12 nations cooperated to establish 47 research stations in the Antarctic. This scientific initiative was so successful that steps were taken to preserve this opportunity for scientific cooperation under the aegis of the Antarctic Treaty, signed at Washington in 1959. This treaty, together with two other associated instruments, provides the legal framework for present-day conservation in the Antarctic.     

The Antarctic ecosystem

The Antarctic region comprises the continent and surrounding sea south of the Antarctic Convergence, where cold Antarctic upper water sinks and mixes with warmer sub-Antarctic water. The continent, nearly centered on the South Geographic Pole, is isolated by the Southern Ocean from other land masses. The continent's mean elevation is about 2,000 m and 98% of the surface is mantled by 2,000 m or more of glacial ice which flows toward coastal outlets to the sea. The ice sheet is pierced by mountain summits, some approaching altitudes near 5,000 m. The continental shelf mean width is 30 km. On its seaward edge the shelf is at depths of 400 to over 600 m. The total area of ice and snow surface presented by the region is doubled by the maximum extent of sea ice each year. The Antarctic Continent is the principal heat sink of the world weather machine. Upwelling areas of the Southern Ocean recycle nutrients and stimulate the marine ecosystem, and seasonal changes in extent of sea ice contribute to one of the greatest annual pulses in marine organic production. The fish fauna has only 120 species but these belong to 29 families. The zooplankton is rich in several endemic crustacea, notably the Antarctic krill. The only vertebrates on land come from the sea onto shore areas and fast ice, including colonies of breeding penguins and associated birds as well as seals. Closed communities of vascular plants and cryptogams occur on sub-Antarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula, but in the entire continental Antarctic the vegetation is desert-like, composed of scattered mosses, lichens, and terrestrial algae. Exposed surfaces of crystalline rocks harbor “endolithic microbial life,” and a few species of invertebrates dwell on favorably exposed soil and under rocks. The ice Plateau is as nearly abiotic or sterile as any area on the earth's surface. The physical and biotic features of Antarctica represent extreme conditions. The continent was untouched by man until the past two centuries and remains nearly pristine. It yields key information about cold environments and global environmental systems including evidences of change, and deserves protection from unnecessary disturbance.     

Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems

The Maritime and Continental Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems are considered in the context of environmental impacts-habitat destruction, alien introductions, and pollution. Their ability to recover from perturbation is discussed in the light of present scientific knowledge, and the methods used to control impacts are reviewed. It is concluded that techniques of waste disposal are still inadequate, adequate training in environmental and conservation principles for Antarctic personnel in many countries is lacking, and scientific investigations may be a much more serious threat than tourism to the integrity of these ecosystems. Some priorities crucial to future management are suggested.     

A worldwide bibliometric analysis of Antarctic krill research during 1960 to 2015

This study conducted a bibliometric analysis of 1251 articles related to Antarctic krill from 1960 to2015, based on the Core Collection in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science. We analyzed the results from four aspects: annual distribution, Web of Science categories and the major journals, international collaboration and author keywords. The Antarctic krill research has developed rapidly since 1978, with an increasing article output. The studies mostly focused on the fields of marine and freshwater biology, oceanography, and ecology. Polar Biology, Marine Ecology-Progress Series and Deep-Sea Research Part Ⅱ-Topical Studies in Oceanography, were the top three journals to publish the Antarctic krill-related papers. Although Russia is the earliest state to report Antarctic krill, U.S.A. and England were leaders with the largest output quantity and the highest cooperation frequencies. The researches in PR China have taken a blooming since 2009 and will play a more and more important role in the world. The frequencies of author keywords were counted. The high-frequency keywords were further divided into four groups with cohesive subgroup analysis, which suggested the major themes. This paper depicts the existing publications on Antarctic krill. Our goal is to serve a point of reference and provide the direction for the future work.     

The Antarctic Treaty System: Environmental protection,conservation, and the question of competing use

The Antarctic Treaty System consists of the Treaty itself, over 130 recommendations made under it, the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals, and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. Consultations have been held among parties to the Antarctic Treaty to elaborate an Antarctic minerals regime. It has become clear that how to deal with issues of competing use has begun to emerge as an important political question. In such a context the development of an Antarctic conservation strategy is a potentially helpful step. Competition of use, when it occurs, will be localised and different in different areas. In only tiny parts will it be severe, but these parts may be the biologically richest coastal areas. Various activities and their possible interactions are considered. It is concluded that any arrangement of Antarctic activities which given an automatic priority of one over others is wrong. Similarly, no activity should be subservient to all others. An Antarctic conservation strategy needs to be developed and in its operation the concept of adaptive environmental assessment and management needs to be applied. Within the Antarctic Treaty System there are moves towards assessment. What is needed now is a framework within which such concepts can operate; that is, a conservation and environmental strategy.     

Biomass

The Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks (BIOMASS) is a ten-year programme organized by various nongovernmental international organisations with the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research being the key sponsors. The programme was initiated in 1976; its continuation beyond 1986 is presently under consideration. The general scope of BIOMASS is broadly directed towards a deeper understanding of the Antarctic marine ecosystem, but is focussed mainly on the krill populations. The most important achievement of BIOMASS is the development of international cooperation in the biological investigation of the Southern Ocean. The orientation towards quantitative assessments of krill stocks has led to multiship surveys and multinational efforts in data handling. BIOMASS contributed greatly to the development, standardisation, intercalibration and dissemination of methods and instrumentation. The communication within the BIOMASS programme by a wide range of meetings, workshops, and various types of publications helped to establish an international marine science community which has become the backbone for the work of the Scientific Committee of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR).     

The exploitation of Antarctic minerals

Exploitation of minerals either from continental shelves or land areas free of ice has yet to take place in the Antarctic. The paper considers pressures, commercial, strategic, and possible depletion of resources elsewhere that might encourage moves towards exploitation. A brief review is given of technical developments that will be required to allow minerals operators to establish themselves in the hostile Antarctic environment. Finally, the issues that arise in the control of mineral exploitation in a region not subject to conventional national authority are noticed and the necessary conditions for the supervision of such activity, and the protection of the Antarctic environment are outlined.     

The impact of tourism on the Antarctic environment

Tourism is well established in the Antarctic. Its impact is at present limited; the number of tourists is small and unlikely to increase much in the near future. Most tourists come by sea. There are two types of cruise: natural history cruises, mostly in small vessels, and more traditional entertainment cruises in larger passenger ships. Small numbers of private expeditions, mostly in yachts, visit the Antarctic. Official guests of the direction or management of research stations may arrive by supply ship or by air. Some tours arrive by plane and stay only a short while. Tourism is unlikely to increase much in the near future because of its high cost, the risk of passenger dissatisfaction on account of bad weather, and the difficult financial situation of some countries. Impacts arising from tourist activities are discussed. At research stations, the impact is on the life and work at the station, but in the field there may be considerable impact on wildlife. The best answer lies in control and interpretation, particularly through tour guides. A possible problem arises with ships' crews, who may not have been as carefully briefed as the passengers. Tourism generates in visitors a lasting interest in the Antarctic, which strengthens public opinion towards conservation.     

The krill-dominated pelagic system of the Southern Ocean

The krill-dominated pelagic system of the seasonal pack-ice zone of the Antarctic Eastwind Drift and the Weddell Gyre is characterized by high concentrations of phytoplankton and krill (amongst other zooplankton) and warm-blooded top consumers. Krill, birds, and mammals are “giants” with high mobility and energy demands, slow growth, low reproduction, and a long life span. The high standing stock of krill and its consumers and their localised dense concentrations attract exploitation by man, but the low net production makes the system susceptible to overfishing. The system appears to be food limited at the adult stage of krill and its consumers. Fluctuations in abundance occur particularly at the larval phase of krill. The juvenile and adult phases are also subject to substantial spatial variations in abundance which affect any kind of harvesting by top consumers, including man.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in marine mammals from Arctic and North Atlantic regions, 1986–2009

A selection of PBDE congeners was analyzed in pooled blubber samples of pilot whale (Globicephala melas), ringed seal (Phoca hispida), minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) and Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus), covering a time period of more than 20 years (1986–2009). The analytes were extracted and cleaned-up using open column extraction and multi-layer silica gel column chromatography, and the analysis was performed on a GC-MS system operating in the NCI mode. The highest PBDE levels were found in the toothed whale species pilot whale and white-sided dolphin, and the lowest levels in fin whales and ringed seals. One-sided analyses of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey comparisons of means were applied to test for differences between years and sampling areas. Due to inter-year sampling variability, only general comparisons of PBDE concentrations between different sampling areas could be made. Differences in PBDE concentrations between three sampling periods, from 1986 to 2007, were evaluated in samples of pilot whales, ringed seals, white-sided dolphins and hooded seals. The highest PBDE levels were found in samples from the late 1990s or beginning of 2000, possibly reflecting the increase in the global production of technical PBDE mixtures in the 1990s. The levels of BDE #153 and #154 increased relative to the total PBDE concentration in some of the species in recent years, which may indicate an increased relative exposure to higher brominated congeners. In order to assess the effect of measures taken in legally binding international agreements, it is important to continuously monitor POPs such as PBDEs in sub-Arctic and Arctic environments.     

Linking Conservation and Development: An Analysis of Local People’s Attitude Towards Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal

Factors influencing local people’s attitudes towards conservation of the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) are analyzed using an ordered logit model. The results indicate that households living closer to the KTWR are more likely to reveal negative attitude towards conservation. Similarly, respondents from larger households tend to show negative conservation attitude. Educated respondents and farmers are likely to demonstrate a positive conservation attitude. The results consistently show that households with poor socioeconomic status and greater dependence on the KTWR for firewood, fodder, and raw materials are likely to possess a more negative attitude towards conservation. Poor households may not necessarily be less concerned about conservation, although institutional settings and abject poverty near protected areas appear to affect their attitudes. Sustainable management of protected areas and local support for natural resource conservation would require socioeconomic development.     

Do protected areas really work to conserve species? A case study of three vulnerable woody species in the Sudanian zone of Burkina Faso

Natural vegetation and native plant species contribute significantly to the daily needs of local people especially in developing countries. This exerts a high pressure on local species and jeopardizes the conservation of the most vulnerable plants. In Burkina Faso, conservation measures, such as the creation of protected forests, have been taken to safeguard the remaining indigenous vegetation. However, little is known about the effectiveness of these protected areas in conserving biodiversity. This study assessed and compared the population structures and regeneration potential of three vulnerable woody species—Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst., Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.) Taub. and Sterculia setigera Del.—in protected and unprotected areas in the Sudanian zone of Burkina Faso. The population structure and regeneration pattern of each species were compared between the North and South Sudanian sectors of Burkina Faso. The populations of all three species were unstable in both protected and unprotected areas. D. mespiliformis and P. africana displayed relatively good regeneration while P. africana lacked regeneration in unprotected areas. Regeneration was poor for S. setigera, regardless of protection status. The results suggest that the populations of the targeted species are unstable, regardless of the protection status of the area considered. This is probably due to the high anthropogenic pressure facing natural resources and raises serious concerns about the effectiveness of the protected areas in conserving biodiversity. Urgent measures are needed to ensure effective and efficient management and conservation of biodiversity in the protected areas of Burkina Faso.     

Community attitudes toward forest conservation programs through collaborative protected area management in Bangladesh

The formulation of conservation policies with options for creating protected areas is significantly influenced by the social factors of the surrounding communities. Therefore, indigenous knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of the local communities need to be explored during the planning and implementation stages of conservation projects. A government-initiated experiment in co-management was conducted in the Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh. This paper analyzes the attitudes toward conservation by members of local communities living in and around the wildlife sanctuary. Training incentives on alternative income-generating (AIG) activities and allotment of agricultural lands were distributed among the Forest User Groups. It is of interest to policy makers and resource managers whether this technique leads to improved attitudes on the part of local people. Although there were different attitudes toward protected areas and conservation, overall, a favorable attitude of the respondents was observed. The opinions of respondents also varied based on factors such as village position, village dependency level on forest resources, ethnicity and gender. Increase in annual income resulting from the augmented skills by trainings on AIG activities and getting agricultural lands leased from the Forest Department contributed significantly to the variation in respondents’ conservation attitudes. It is suggested that eliminating inequity and inequality in incentive distribution, discovering and launching training on more need-based livelihood activities, and liberalizing the restriction of resource extraction from the protected area by fixing the harvesting limit would encourage the community to be more cordially and actively involved in the conservation efforts of the sanctuary.     

中华鲟濒危状况与物种保护对策的评估分析

濒危等级是确定物种优先保护顺序和制订濒危物种保育策略的重要依据。结合历史资料以及近年的监测数据,对长江中华鲟种群繁殖群体及补充群体数量与质量,关键栖息地胁迫因素及胁迫强度等的全面梳理,总结出了1981年以来中华鲟种群及环境胁迫的变动趋势。参照IUCN物种濒危程度的划分准则建立了中华鲟物种濒危等级的划分标准;同时按照10年一组对该物种不同年代下的濒危状况进行评估。中华鲟在1983~1992年代进入濒危程度;在2003~2012年代进入极危程度。中华鲟物种的濒危等级取决于自身种群质量以及人类活动及环境结构变化等多方面的综合影响。人类活动和环境结构变化对中华鲟的胁迫呈现多样性与复杂性,且整体呈现一定的时间和空间尺度上的差异。最后,基于物种的濒危状况以及胁迫因素,分析了不同年代内的对策及效果,在此基础上提出了物种保护工作的构架和保护行动的优先顺序。     

(137)Cs concentrations in Atlantic and western Antarctic surface waters: results of the 7th Ukrainian Antarctic Expedition, 2002

The latitudinal distribution of (137)Cs in the Atlantic--western Antarctic surface waters was studied during the 7th Ukrainian Antarctic Expedition in January--May 2002. The (137)Cs concentrations have also been measured in the upper ice of the coastal glacier Woozle Hill located near the Ukrainian Antarctic station "Akademik Vernadsky" (western Antarctica, 65 degrees 15' S-64 degrees 16' W). Comparison of these data with results of previous same-route expeditions SWEDARP (Swedish Antarctic Research Expedition, 1988/1989) and the French R/V "Jeanne d'Arc" (1992/1993), has shown practically parallel changes of (137)Cs surface concentrations between 40 degrees N and 20 degrees S, pointing to decrease of (137)Cs radioactivity at these latitudes with an apparent half-life of 10--15 years (12.5+/-2.1 years on average). This suggests that decrease of (137)Cs surface concentration within this latitude band is controlled, besides the radioactive decay of (137)Cs (half-life=30 years), by vertical mixing of the upper water masses. South of 20 degrees S, the (137)Cs concentrations in surface water have decreased more rapidly because of the influence of the less contaminated Antarctic waters. At 50--60 degrees S and near the Antarctic coast, the (137)Cs activity in 2002 was similar to those measured during the SWEDARP and "Jeanne d'Arc" expeditions, suggesting an additional input of (137)Cs to these waters from the melted ice from the adjacent glaciers.     

Government and biodiversity governance in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan: an institutional perspective

Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has doubled its protected areas territory to almost 10 % of the country’s surface area. Although the daily management of the existing strictly protected areas continues to pose a challenge, the establishment of nine national parks has been a remarkable achievement. At present, the designation of UNESCO biosphere reserves (BR) is the expressed political will of the government. By reviewing the last 25 years of nature conservation, and, in particular, the national park programme, we present an institutional analysis for integrative nature conservation in Azerbaijan. Against the cultural, social and political background, in particular the transition of the state, the challenges for cross-hierarchical governance of protected areas are outlined at the example of a BR. We find that the implementation of the UNESCO MAB philosophy, which is based on inter alia participation by administration, local communities and rural stakeholder, is hampered by this present-day political reality. The political situation and an autocratic governance scheme put successful implementation of a “model region of sustainable development” at risk. Education and empowerment are a prerequisite for eventual success; this is true for Azerbaijan as well as for other Post-Soviet countries with strong top-down regimes.